Objective: Explain how systems of belief and their practices affected society in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450
Women and Islam
Women in Bedouin societies prior to Islam
Women often played active and highly valued roles in most nomadic societies. This fact was particularly true in and around the vibrant trading city of Mecca. While Bedouin women were by no means considered the equals of men, they were able to marry whomever they wanted, choose occupations that best suited them, and even had the power to influence clan decisions. The position of Muhammad’s first wife Khadija (pronounced hah-dee-jah) provides us with an excellent example of the egalitarian or relatively equal status experienced by Bedouin women.
Khadija (“pictured” above) inherited and managed her father’s vibrant trading business after his death. Obviously then, women in Bedouin societies were able to own and inherit property. It also shows us that women could pursue careers and sometimes held leadership positions. Khadija hired Muhammad and he worked under her. She was his mentor and advisor. After he had worked for her for some time, she asked to marry him. While it was probably not normal for a woman to employ a man or for a woman to ask a man to marry her, these acts neither shocked her family or surprised the people of Mecca. Muhammad accepted, and the two were married. It is also important to note that Khadija was a widow when she asked Muhammad to marry her. This shows that it was acceptable in Bedouin society for women to remarry.
Life for women during Muhammad Life
Quran provided mix of rights, restrictions, and protection. Female infanticide (killing of babies - usually to have more male children) was forbidden. Women had control over their own property. Marriage by abduction was forbidden and divorce was possible for both parties. Women were granted rights of inheritance. Muslim women led public lives, prayed at mosques with men. Bedouin gender roles were very influential on the teachings and personal behavior of Muhammad who once said: "Women are the twin halves of men." In Islam, there is absolutely no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to Allah is concerned. Both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. This idea can be seen in the following surah from the Qur’an: "And for women are rights over men similar to those of men over women [2:228]." The Qur’an also attempted to protect women in more practical worldly matters. During the life of the prophet then, and for one or two centuries after his death, women in the Islamic world enjoyed exceptional opportunities. Opportunities not enjoyed by women in India, China, or Europe at the time.
But in social terms (especially within a marriage) the Quran viewed women as inferior and subordinate. Men were able to take multiple wives and were able to have sexual relations with slaves. The children born from those relationships were free. The practice of marring multiple husbands that was practiced before Islam, was outlawed.
Two Hundred Years after Muhammad
After Muhammad’s death, his successors, the powerful caliphs of the first Islamic empires, began to conquer urbanized, “civilized” populations in the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. As they did, the patriarchal traditions that have long existed in Persia, Mesopotamia, and Byzantium began to take influence and were eventually adopted by Muslims within the empire. As we have seen, urban civilizations tend to be more patriarchal than nomadic societies. In more “civilized” societies, men begin to dominate positions of power and the more beneficial occupations. Women in “civilized” societies become subjected to men and more confined to the roles of homemakers and child bearers.
From Persia and Byzantium, Muslims adopted the practice of veiling their women. Male Islamic scholars interpreted “modesty” in the Qur’an as meaning women should covering most, if not all, of their skin (as seen on the right). Muslim women became more restricted to the home; their occupational options decrease; and their educational opportunities diminish.
Upper class women experienced increased restrictions on their movement and activities. In the palaces that sprang up in the cities of the Islamic empires, upper class women were often kept in rooms separated from the rest of the house by high walls and gardens. In the palaces of government officials, the harem was developed. Harem means “forbidden area”, and it is in the harem where the officials secluded their wives and concubines (sex slaves). Here, the women were guarded by the watchful eyes and sharp swords of the eunuchs (castrated men). When upper class women left the house and ventured into the city, they were veiled from head to toe to keep them from the prying eyes of unrelated males. They were also often carried in covered sedan chairs (as seen below).
Working class women were never strictly protected compared to upper class women. Women from poorer families had to work to survive. Therefore, at times they had to leave the house veiled but unchaperoned. Furthermore, whereas upper class women often had servants to attend to daily matters in the home, working class women did not. As a result, poorer women also had to work hard in the home. Their domestic duties included, cleaning, weaving, rug-making, and other crafts that might support the family income.
Despite these changes in the lives of women in Middle East, the status of women never declined to the same extent as in India, China, or Europe. Because of the need to read the Qur’an, women continued to be educated. Islamic law preserved many rights for women, for example, the right to inherit and own property as well as the right to divorce and remarry. These were rights that were not offered to women in other “civilized” societies. Thus, the strong position women had enjoyed in Bedouin culture was never entirely undone by the patriarchal traditions encountered by Muslims as they came to rule the urbanized centers in the rest of the Middle East. Indeed, many of the egalitarian practices of Bedouin culture were built into the foundations of Islam as it emerged.
What seems clear then, is that civilization works against the best interests of women. In many non-civilized societies (like the Bedouin) women are able to own property, engage in economic activity, and play important roles in religious ceremonies. It is possible that this is due to that fact that in less “civilized” societies, women play a much more direct role in the survival of the group. They are instrumental in agriculture and animal raising. As societies become more “civilized”, this connection between women and the economy of the group erodes, and therefore so does their status and power.
Women often played active and highly valued roles in most nomadic societies. This fact was particularly true in and around the vibrant trading city of Mecca. While Bedouin women were by no means considered the equals of men, they were able to marry whomever they wanted, choose occupations that best suited them, and even had the power to influence clan decisions. The position of Muhammad’s first wife Khadija (pronounced hah-dee-jah) provides us with an excellent example of the egalitarian or relatively equal status experienced by Bedouin women.
Khadija (“pictured” above) inherited and managed her father’s vibrant trading business after his death. Obviously then, women in Bedouin societies were able to own and inherit property. It also shows us that women could pursue careers and sometimes held leadership positions. Khadija hired Muhammad and he worked under her. She was his mentor and advisor. After he had worked for her for some time, she asked to marry him. While it was probably not normal for a woman to employ a man or for a woman to ask a man to marry her, these acts neither shocked her family or surprised the people of Mecca. Muhammad accepted, and the two were married. It is also important to note that Khadija was a widow when she asked Muhammad to marry her. This shows that it was acceptable in Bedouin society for women to remarry.
Life for women during Muhammad Life
Quran provided mix of rights, restrictions, and protection. Female infanticide (killing of babies - usually to have more male children) was forbidden. Women had control over their own property. Marriage by abduction was forbidden and divorce was possible for both parties. Women were granted rights of inheritance. Muslim women led public lives, prayed at mosques with men. Bedouin gender roles were very influential on the teachings and personal behavior of Muhammad who once said: "Women are the twin halves of men." In Islam, there is absolutely no difference between men and women as far as their relationship to Allah is concerned. Both are promised the same reward for good conduct and the same punishment for evil conduct. This idea can be seen in the following surah from the Qur’an: "And for women are rights over men similar to those of men over women [2:228]." The Qur’an also attempted to protect women in more practical worldly matters. During the life of the prophet then, and for one or two centuries after his death, women in the Islamic world enjoyed exceptional opportunities. Opportunities not enjoyed by women in India, China, or Europe at the time.
But in social terms (especially within a marriage) the Quran viewed women as inferior and subordinate. Men were able to take multiple wives and were able to have sexual relations with slaves. The children born from those relationships were free. The practice of marring multiple husbands that was practiced before Islam, was outlawed.
Two Hundred Years after Muhammad
After Muhammad’s death, his successors, the powerful caliphs of the first Islamic empires, began to conquer urbanized, “civilized” populations in the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. As they did, the patriarchal traditions that have long existed in Persia, Mesopotamia, and Byzantium began to take influence and were eventually adopted by Muslims within the empire. As we have seen, urban civilizations tend to be more patriarchal than nomadic societies. In more “civilized” societies, men begin to dominate positions of power and the more beneficial occupations. Women in “civilized” societies become subjected to men and more confined to the roles of homemakers and child bearers.
From Persia and Byzantium, Muslims adopted the practice of veiling their women. Male Islamic scholars interpreted “modesty” in the Qur’an as meaning women should covering most, if not all, of their skin (as seen on the right). Muslim women became more restricted to the home; their occupational options decrease; and their educational opportunities diminish.
Upper class women experienced increased restrictions on their movement and activities. In the palaces that sprang up in the cities of the Islamic empires, upper class women were often kept in rooms separated from the rest of the house by high walls and gardens. In the palaces of government officials, the harem was developed. Harem means “forbidden area”, and it is in the harem where the officials secluded their wives and concubines (sex slaves). Here, the women were guarded by the watchful eyes and sharp swords of the eunuchs (castrated men). When upper class women left the house and ventured into the city, they were veiled from head to toe to keep them from the prying eyes of unrelated males. They were also often carried in covered sedan chairs (as seen below).
Working class women were never strictly protected compared to upper class women. Women from poorer families had to work to survive. Therefore, at times they had to leave the house veiled but unchaperoned. Furthermore, whereas upper class women often had servants to attend to daily matters in the home, working class women did not. As a result, poorer women also had to work hard in the home. Their domestic duties included, cleaning, weaving, rug-making, and other crafts that might support the family income.
Despite these changes in the lives of women in Middle East, the status of women never declined to the same extent as in India, China, or Europe. Because of the need to read the Qur’an, women continued to be educated. Islamic law preserved many rights for women, for example, the right to inherit and own property as well as the right to divorce and remarry. These were rights that were not offered to women in other “civilized” societies. Thus, the strong position women had enjoyed in Bedouin culture was never entirely undone by the patriarchal traditions encountered by Muslims as they came to rule the urbanized centers in the rest of the Middle East. Indeed, many of the egalitarian practices of Bedouin culture were built into the foundations of Islam as it emerged.
What seems clear then, is that civilization works against the best interests of women. In many non-civilized societies (like the Bedouin) women are able to own property, engage in economic activity, and play important roles in religious ceremonies. It is possible that this is due to that fact that in less “civilized” societies, women play a much more direct role in the survival of the group. They are instrumental in agriculture and animal raising. As societies become more “civilized”, this connection between women and the economy of the group erodes, and therefore so does their status and power.