READING QUESTIONS
1. What groups of people lived in Latin America before the revolution?
2. What were the first reforms of Bolívar and Miranda?
3. How did different groups of people in Latin America understand the Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality?
4. What did the Venezuelan revolution accomplish?
5. In what ways did the Venezuelan revolution produce freedom? What were the limits of this freedom?
6. In what ways did the Venezuelan revolution produce equality? What were the limits of this equality?
1. What groups of people lived in Latin America before the revolution?
2. What were the first reforms of Bolívar and Miranda?
3. How did different groups of people in Latin America understand the Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality?
4. What did the Venezuelan revolution accomplish?
5. In what ways did the Venezuelan revolution produce freedom? What were the limits of this freedom?
6. In what ways did the Venezuelan revolution produce equality? What were the limits of this equality?
Latin American Revolutions
Class Struggle
The social classes in Latin America were centered around the Casta System and the struggles for power within that system. Peninsulares dominated the political and economic systems of the colonies. The bulk of the criollo population was less well off than the Peninsulares. They worked primarily in urban positions as artisans, soldiers, and small-to middling traders. The majority of the population was of combined Native American and European ancestry, known in Spanish as mestizos. This population was mainly made up of peasants. Though mestizos wanted to end the criollos’ white privilege, they did not necessarily want to end slavery. |
Two groups of people were outside the political system despite being very much a part of Venezuelan society. First, African slaves, whose labor was essential for the colony’s plantation economy, constituted about 20 percent of the population. The foremost goal for slaves was freedom, specifically the end of slavery. As a minority of the population, however, and with the Spanish elite profiting from slave labor, slaves were not in a good position to force their demands. Second, the native population, suffering from the disease and death brought by Europeans in the sixteenth century and known as the Great Dying, made up less than 10 percent of the total population at independence. The natives were thoroughly marginalized politically and economically.
Economic Causes
While Spain viewed its colonies as a steady source of income to be kept under control, the Creoles wanted to end mercantilism. They were wealthy owners of estates, mines and businesses. Thus they wanted to have the freedom to sell their cash crops on the open world market in order to fetch the highest price. Creoles were also upset about the Spanish quinto real, (Spanish: “royal fifth”), that the colonies paid the crown on mineral products such as silver; it was the principal source of profit derived by Spain from its colonies.
While Spain viewed its colonies as a steady source of income to be kept under control, the Creoles wanted to end mercantilism. They were wealthy owners of estates, mines and businesses. Thus they wanted to have the freedom to sell their cash crops on the open world market in order to fetch the highest price. Creoles were also upset about the Spanish quinto real, (Spanish: “royal fifth”), that the colonies paid the crown on mineral products such as silver; it was the principal source of profit derived by Spain from its colonies.
Political inefficiencies
By the nineteenth century, the economic interests of Creoles and the Spanish imperial government had diverged. The Spanish colonial government sought, above all, to preserve The Casta’s hierarchical social order. Anyone who wanted greater social, political, or economic equality in the colony had, at some level, to oppose the Spanish government. The Creoles wanted more political power. They were resentful that the most important government positions were reserved for Peninsulares. Discontent with Spain was not limited to the upper classes. The Mestizos also wanted a share of the political power. Many worked in the large estates of the Peninsulares and Creoles and wanted the same privileges. Napoleon’s 1808 conquest of Spain provided Creole revolutionaries with a window of opportunity. For example, In 1810, the town council of Caracas deposed the Spanish colonial governor and established a junta, or group dictatorship. Simón Bolívar, a wealthy criollo profoundly influenced by the European writers of the Enlightenment, traveled to Europe himself at this point to rally support for the revolution, but he was largely unsuccessful.
The junta is seen as a pivotal event that led to independence in Latin America. Similar juntas were created as other countries began to fight for their independence in Latin America. |
A short summary of two revolutions
Mexican Independence
Napoleon wanted to institute some of the liberal principles of the French Revolution. This angered some of the Peninsulares of New Spain. Creoles in the colonies saw an opportunity to gain independence. One such Creole was Padre Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. He called for independence on September 16, 1810. The army was made up of Mestizos and natives that yearned for change. It turned into an unorganized uncontrollable army. Hidalgo was caught and beheaded by the authorities.
Mexican Independence
Napoleon wanted to institute some of the liberal principles of the French Revolution. This angered some of the Peninsulares of New Spain. Creoles in the colonies saw an opportunity to gain independence. One such Creole was Padre Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. He called for independence on September 16, 1810. The army was made up of Mestizos and natives that yearned for change. It turned into an unorganized uncontrollable army. Hidalgo was caught and beheaded by the authorities.
Another priest by the name of Maria Morelos, a man of mixed Native, African and European heritage, took charge. Many peasants had gone home to tend their lands. The new revolutionary army to be more organized and fared better. Morelos was caught and killed in 1814.
In that same year, Napoleon was defeated in Spain, the King of Spain re-established as an absolute ruler but later forced to sign a liberal constitution that gave many rights to the colonies. Fearing a liberal agenda , the monarchists in Mexico formed an alliance with the church and created a new revolutionary army led by Agustin de Inturbide. This army finally got independence from Spain in 1820. Inturbide became the monarch of the newly independent Mexico but was later deposed and a Constitutional Government with three branches similar to the US was set up in Mexico. However, Mexico would then fall into a period of wars marked by the Mexican American War (1846-1848), a French invasion (1861-1863) finally ending in a dictatorship by Porfirio Diaz from 1876 through 1911. Diaz was deposed leading Mexico into a 10 year Civil War. |
Venezuelan Independence
In 1811, Venezuela’s National Congress declared independence. Many regions in Venezuela declared their independence on July 5th 1811 and a constitution was written shortly afterwards. However there were also regions which refused to join the republic. These included the cities of Coro, Maracaibo, Guayana and Valencia, which had initially joined but then changed position. Thus an internal war was still raging in the country despite the proclamation of independence. The First Republic of Venezuela was lost in 1812 following the Battle of La Victoria and an earthquake in Caracas. Francisco Miranda and Simon Bolívar, two wealthy creoles, led a campaign to gain control of Venezuela once more and the Second Republic of Venezuela was established in 1813. Again this failed, due to local rebellions and to a Spanish royalist reconquest.
In 1811, Venezuela’s National Congress declared independence. Many regions in Venezuela declared their independence on July 5th 1811 and a constitution was written shortly afterwards. However there were also regions which refused to join the republic. These included the cities of Coro, Maracaibo, Guayana and Valencia, which had initially joined but then changed position. Thus an internal war was still raging in the country despite the proclamation of independence. The First Republic of Venezuela was lost in 1812 following the Battle of La Victoria and an earthquake in Caracas. Francisco Miranda and Simon Bolívar, two wealthy creoles, led a campaign to gain control of Venezuela once more and the Second Republic of Venezuela was established in 1813. Again this failed, due to local rebellions and to a Spanish royalist reconquest.
In 1814, Bolívar retreated from the region this time to the British colony of Jamaica. It was from Jamaica that Bolívar wrote a famous letter, known as the Jamaica Letter or ‘The Carta de Jamaica’ in which he outlined his views on the political situation in the Americas and his vision of the new nations that would emerge.
In 1815, Bolivar was in exile in Haiti. There he raised an army of mestizos, slaves, natives and criollos. He was able to return to Venezuela. From 1815 to 1824, the Independence movement made many gains. Bolivar was able to take advantage of the geography in Boyaca and took a major victory in Carabobo. In 1824 the Spanish were finally repelled, establishing Gran Colombia.
The region would fall into another period of civil war and rule by caudillos until 1830.
In 1815, Bolivar was in exile in Haiti. There he raised an army of mestizos, slaves, natives and criollos. He was able to return to Venezuela. From 1815 to 1824, the Independence movement made many gains. Bolivar was able to take advantage of the geography in Boyaca and took a major victory in Carabobo. In 1824 the Spanish were finally repelled, establishing Gran Colombia.
The region would fall into another period of civil war and rule by caudillos until 1830.
Successes of the Latin American Revolutions
The revolution did end Spain’s mercantilist restrictions on Latin American commerce, and the new republics traded its cocoa, sugar, coffee and other cash crops on the open world market. In many countries, Republics were set up focused on Enlightenment principles. Many land owning white hacendados gained the right to vote.
The revolution did end Spain’s mercantilist restrictions on Latin American commerce, and the new republics traded its cocoa, sugar, coffee and other cash crops on the open world market. In many countries, Republics were set up focused on Enlightenment principles. Many land owning white hacendados gained the right to vote.
Limitations of the Latin American Revolutions
The revolution’s gains, however, were rolled back when Spain briefly reconquered Venezuela after Napoleon’s fall in 1814. Slavery was restored, and when Bolívar, having successfully elicited aid from independent Haiti, permanently liberated Venezuela in 1819, it remained intact. Venezuela continued to be ruled, as it had in 1810, by hacendados. White privilege, too, remained the order of the day all over Latin America, criollos reserving a greater measure of political and economic status than mestizos.
The revolution’s gains, however, were rolled back when Spain briefly reconquered Venezuela after Napoleon’s fall in 1814. Slavery was restored, and when Bolívar, having successfully elicited aid from independent Haiti, permanently liberated Venezuela in 1819, it remained intact. Venezuela continued to be ruled, as it had in 1810, by hacendados. White privilege, too, remained the order of the day all over Latin America, criollos reserving a greater measure of political and economic status than mestizos.
Women would also be slow to gain any voting rights or any other political rights. Women still were not able to enter into contracts nor did they receive an education. One notable exception was Sor Juana Inez de La Cruz who was able to write books and poetry and was an eloquent defender of women’s rights. She was later forced to give up her writing and studies by the Catholic Church.
The Revolutions dragged on for many years and the result was a series of dictatorships by caudillos or military strongmen that promised peace and stability. Due to these wars the economy would not recover quickly. Moreover, while Europe and The United States were industrializing, Latin America would focus on exporting cash crops and would not develop as quickly. Latin America became economically dependent on the industrialized countries, especially the US.
|