Reading questions
Objective #1 Explain how rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power in land-based empires from 1450 to 1750.
Objective #2 Explain how and why various land-based empires developed and expanded from 1450 to 1750.
consolidating and legitimizing
Objective #2 Explain how and why various land-based empires developed and expanded from 1450 to 1750.
consolidating and legitimizing
- What technological factors that contributed to the growth of the Mughal Empire?
- What governing techniques did the Mughal use?
- What were zamindars and how did they help the Mughal empire?
- What is the purpose of the Taj Mahal?
- Why could Akbar be considered tolerant?
- How did Aurangzeb change the policies of previous rulers ?
- Explain the causes and consequences of the Maratha Rebellion?
- What were the main things traded by the Mughals?
- What was the EIC?
- Why Sikhism be considered a syncretic religion?
- What were some Hindu influences?
- What were some Islam influences?
Who were the Mughals?
The Mughal Empire was yet another Turkic group that invaded and successfully conquered India. This time in 1526. The Mughals claimed to be descendants of both Genghis Khan and Timur but were Turkic in culture.(watch the video below) They would come to dominate most of India but failed to convert the people they ruled. Thus a Muslim minority ruled over a Hindu majority sometimes resulting in religious tolerance and syncretism while at other times causing conflict.
Mughal Consolidation of power
Muslims were a minority ruling class who relied on military power to control the Hindus who outnumbered them. Like other empires of the period, they used gunpowder weapons to pursued expansionist policies. For example, Akbar and Aurangzeb, spent a considerable amount of time trying to extend Mughal control over the entire Indian subcontinent, creating an effective empire. They were able to incorporate Indian princes into the ruling class while still retaining top positions for Muslims.
They reorganized the bureaucracy and instituted an effective tax collection system. Taxes were usually collected by local leaders called Zamindars. Taxes had to be paid in cash, and this contributed to the growing commercialization of the Mughal empire. Reliance on Zamindars, who were essential men in their communities, meant that the empire could collect revenue without being too disruptive to local village life, and although almost all of the revenue came from taxes on agriculture, the Mughals also taxed trade.
Another way that the Mughals centralized and legitimized their rule was building projects or monumental architecture to enhance their prestige. Building monuments to one's greatness is what rulers tend to d. As Muslims, many of their building projects were mosques, but the Mughals also built forts and, most spectacularly, mausoleums. The most famous of these mausoleums was the Taj Mahal
They reorganized the bureaucracy and instituted an effective tax collection system. Taxes were usually collected by local leaders called Zamindars. Taxes had to be paid in cash, and this contributed to the growing commercialization of the Mughal empire. Reliance on Zamindars, who were essential men in their communities, meant that the empire could collect revenue without being too disruptive to local village life, and although almost all of the revenue came from taxes on agriculture, the Mughals also taxed trade.
Another way that the Mughals centralized and legitimized their rule was building projects or monumental architecture to enhance their prestige. Building monuments to one's greatness is what rulers tend to d. As Muslims, many of their building projects were mosques, but the Mughals also built forts and, most spectacularly, mausoleums. The most famous of these mausoleums was the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal
Shah Jahan, the fifth ruler of the Mughal dynasty, lost his wife after she had complication due to birth of the child. Deeply saddened, he began construction on a mausoleum- a structure designed for burial. The popular view is that the emperor loved his wife so much that he constructed a lavish tomb for her. Some historians argue that the Taj was something of a vanity project, built to glorify Mughal rule and the emperor himself.
Mughal Rulers: Tolerant to Intolerant
Babur 1526-1530 CE
Babur was the first emperor of the Mughal Empire. Above is a miniature painting of Babur in the center riding a horse with his Mughal armies equipped with gunpowder weapons as they conquer India. Babur conquered northern India, but later emperors will expand the empire further. The Mughal ruling class was Muslim, though the majority of their subjects practiced some form of Hinduism. When Babur first founded the empire, he didn’t emphasize his Islamic religion, but rather his Mongol heritage since Babur claimed he was a descendant of Genghis Khan. Due to his policy of religious tolerance, the Mughal Empire was quite cosmopolitan, meaning it was the home to a diverse range of cultures. Under Babur’s rule, Hinduism was tolerated and new Hindu temples were built throughout the empire. |
Akbar 1556-1605 CE
Babur’s grandson, Akbar, was interested in religious beliefs. Above is a miniature painting of Akbar at his House of Worship. Sitting under the canopy, Akbar is surrounded by scholars from different religions (Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, and people of other religions in India) as they engage is discussions and debates about faith. Akbar worked hard to win over the hearts and minds of the Hindu leaders. While this may well have been for political reasons, he married a Hindu princess, who influenced Akbar’s interest in Indian culture. Akbar believed that all religions should be tolerated, and that a ruler's duty was to treat all people equally, regardless of their beliefs. Therefore, he abolished the jizya tax across the empire. Akbar’s bureaucracy included many Hindus being appointed high-level administrative or military positions to help govern the various provinces. By the time of his death, Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire to most of northern, central, and western India. |
Aurangzeb 1658-1707 CE
Akbar’s grandson, Aurangzeb, brought the Mughal Empire to it’s height by conquering most of southern India. Unfortunately, the religious tolerance that existed under Akbar was also reversed by Aurangzeb. Above Aurangzeb is portrayed reading the Qur’an, showing that he was a devout Muslim. Wanting to make the empire more Islamic, he imposed Sharia law. As a result, all non-Muslims were no longer allowed to live by their own cultural traditions. Thousands of Hindu temples were destroyed and replaced them with mosques. Dealing with financial issues from the previous Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb decided bring back and enforce the jizya tax on non-Muslim subjects, which was roughly 80% of the population. Music and dance—both essential elements of Hindu culture—were declared illegal under Aurangzeb as well as the sati ritual (widow burning). In addition, all non-Muslim government officials were replaced with Muslim administrators. The Mughal’s intolerance towards non-Muslims caused instability and rebellions throughout the empire, continuing even after Aurangzeb’s death. |
Challenge to state power
Mughal Economy
The economy of the Mughal Empire was dependent on agriculture, trade and the cotton industry. According to historians, since time immemorial agriculture has always been the backbone of economy of the country. Thus, in the Mughal era also agriculture was actually the biggest source of income. Moreover, it was also one of the main sources of livelihood of majority of the people in the country.
The Mughal agriculture was controlled by the previously mentioned Zamindars. These were local officials that were paid in land. Their job was then to collect taxes from the peasants, keep a percentage, and turn over the remaining taxes to the state. This system was somewhat efficient leading to stability and agricultural growth . The major crops that were grown during the Mughal era included wheat, rice, and sugarcane. The Mughal also grew cash crops for export. Cotton, indigo, and pepper were grown and shipped all over the world. The manufacture of cotton goods, for example, had assumed such extensive proportions that in addition to satisfying its own needs, India sent cloth the east coast of Africa, Arabia, Egypt, Southeast Asia, as well as Europe. The textile industry, well established in Akbar's day, continued to flourish under his successors, and soon the operations of Dutch and English traders brought India into direct touch with Western markets. In return for these cash crops and commodities, Mughal merchants obtained new world silver. |
In 1608, the British East India Company's (EIC) first ship arrived at Surat. In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe, an English emissary of King James I reached out to the court of the then Mughal emperor Jahangir (1605-1627), in order to establish a factory at Surat. See the image below
English started the full-fledged trade in India but soon the trading interest clashed with other European countries: the Portuguese, French, Dutch and the Spaniards. This led to some conflicts in order to secure trading monopoly in markets
English started the full-fledged trade in India but soon the trading interest clashed with other European countries: the Portuguese, French, Dutch and the Spaniards. This led to some conflicts in order to secure trading monopoly in markets
The Impact of Islam in Hindu India
Differences Between the Largest Religions in India
Religion has always held a dominant place in South Asian history. Before the arrival of Islam, most South Asians practiced Hinduism with a smaller number identified as Buddhists. Hindus encountered a starkly different religion when Islam arrived:
- Hindus pray to many gods whereas Islam is strictly monotheistic.
- Hindu temples and art are decorated with images of deities, while Muslims typically disapprove any visual representation of Allah.
- Hinduism is associated with the hierarchical caste system. On the other hand, Islam calls for the equality of all believers.
- Hindus read different sacred texts, and not always the same ones. Muslims tend to use only the Qur'an for spiritual guidance.
Sikhism: A Syncretic Religion in India
Hindu and Muslim tensions in India were quite violent throughout the Foundations Period due to the Delhi Sultanate. During the Early Modern Period, the Mughals, another Islamic dynasty who ruled India, introduced religious tolerant policies that eased the tensions between Hindus and Muslims significantly.
As a result, a syncretic religion known as Sikhism (pronounced as seek-ism) emerged that blended the doctrines of both Hinduism and Islam. The founder of the Sikh religion is Guru Nanak (1469-1539), who is considered one of the greatest religious innovators and spiritual leaders. Nanak's religious ideas drew from both Hindu and Islamic thought, but his ideas are far more than just combining two religions. Nanak was a spiritual thinker and expressed his thoughts in extraordinary poetry that forms the basis of Sikh scripture. He worked for a while as an accountant but while still quite young decided to devote himself to spiritual matters. He was inspired by a powerful spiritual experience that gave him a vision of the true nature of God, and confirmed his idea that the way to spiritual growth was through meditation and through living in a way that reflected the presence of the divine within each human being. In 1496, although married and having a family, Nanak set out on a set of spiritual journeys through India, Tibet and Arabia that lasted nearly 30 years. He studied and debated with the learned men he met along the way and as his ideas took shape he began to teach a new route to spiritual fulfilment. Bottom right image: The Golden Temple, the most sacred shrine in Sikhism |
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Quotes by Guru Nanak illustrating Hindu & Islamic Influences
"Why should one be fearful? Trees, plants, rocks, and all that is inside and outside is Brahman himself."
"By the Karma of past actions has this physical body been obtained. By Ramas grace the liberation of Moksha is obtained." |
"One Universal Creator. His name is Truth. He is Allah, the Unknowable, the Inaccessible, All-powerful and Merciful Creator."
"Someone set up a stone idol and all the world worships it as lord. Those who do this will be drowned in the eternal river of darkness." |
Bhakti Movement
Also becoming more popular was the Bhakti movement that diffused from southern India to northern India helping Hinduism survive. The movement emphasized intense adoration to one particular Hindu deity through song, meditation, prayers and rituals. The Bhakti movement pushed back against the traditional caste system and traditional gender roles. They invited everyone to their adoration. The Bhakti easily assimilated local beliefs and local deities allowing Hinduism to survive and essentially giving the lower castes an alternative to Buddhism and Islam. The inclusion of the Bhakti moment led to the decline of Buddhism in India.