Political Developments
Topic 1.1 Developments in East Asia from c. 1200 to c. 1450
Thematic Focus - Governance (GOV)
Learning Objective
Explain the systems of government employed by Chinese dynasties and how they developed over time.
Historical Developments
Empires and states in Afro-Eurasia and the Americas demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity in the 13th century. This included the Song Dynasty of China, which utilized traditional methods of Confucianism and imperial bureaucracy to maintain and justify its rule.
Vocabulary to know
Song Dynasty
Grand Canal
Champa Rice
Tributary System
Kowtow
Scholar Gentry
Foot Binding
Zen Buddhism
Filial Piety
Reading Questions
- What is the Mandate of Heaven ?
- What is the main goal of Confucianism?
- What was the civil service exam?
- Who were the scholar gentry?
- What was the imperial bureaucracy?
- What were the consequences of the implementation of the Civil Service Exam and the Imperial Bureaucracy?
- Explain the Tributary System.
- What is the practice of Kowtow?
- Explain at least 3 more ways the Song centralized power.
- What was the most important effect of effective administrative techniques?
- What factors contributed to the Song's decline?
What systems of government did the Song use to maintain and justify their rule?
Introduction
After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, over 50 years of chaos followed until the year 960 CE when the Song Dynasty was founded. The Song would rule until 1279 when they would fall to the Mongols. Around 1200, Asia was one of the most advanced and sophisticated regions in the world. At the center of this region was the Song Dynasty in China. Their advanced political system and innovations led to long periods of peace that allowed for economic growth and cultural growth. Not only did the Song grow as a civilization, they were able to influence the regions of Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, over 50 years of chaos followed until the year 960 CE when the Song Dynasty was founded. The Song would rule until 1279 when they would fall to the Mongols. Around 1200, Asia was one of the most advanced and sophisticated regions in the world. At the center of this region was the Song Dynasty in China. Their advanced political system and innovations led to long periods of peace that allowed for economic growth and cultural growth. Not only did the Song grow as a civilization, they were able to influence the regions of Korea, Vietnam and Japan.
How did the Song Dynasty Justify or Legitimize their rule? The Song Dynasty was monarchy. It was ruled by a long line of emperors from the Song family. The emperor justified or legitimized their rule using the Mandate of Heaven. the Zhou dynasty created this concept around 1000 BCE. This meant that the heavens allowed the dystanty to rule. When the emperors were just rulers, they continued to rule. If people were eating, were safe and in general had good lives, the emperors could justify their rule.
If they were unjust rulers, people were starving or invaders kept coming in they lost the mandate and were deposed by another dynasty. This is called the Dynastic Cycle as seen to the left. Another method used by the Song to justify and legitimize their rule was Confucianism. Confucianism rose during a period of warring states during 500 BCE but began to be used fully during the Han Dynasty around 200 BCE. The main goal is not to understand the after life but to maintain social order Confucianism is a philosophy that emphasizes good character, social order and family structure, ancestor worship, harmony in thought and action. One important idea is family structure harmony. You can create harmony with filial piety or respect for those above you including elders, parents and the emperor. It also stressed Ren or love for others including the responsibility for those below you. According to Confucius this was required to be able to maintain the Mandate of Heaven. Confucian ideology was the focus of the imperial examination system that allowed people to get jobs in the imperial bureaucracy.
By focusing the examinations on Confucianism ideology, the emperor made sure the officials that got the jobs in the governments bureaucracy had the ideals of respect obedience towards the emperor. That helped him consolidate his rule as well as justify or legitimize his rule. He could claim that he was a just ruler and therefore had the Mandate of Heaven. |
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How did the Song Maintain order?
The Imperial Bureaucracy
The The Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE) established the first centralized bureaucratic empire and thus created the need for an administrative system. The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties then created the state Civil Service Exam. Under this system, government jobs were given to those that passed exams based on Confucian principles. Th Tang established state schools that would prepare students for the exams. The exams were extremely competitive. Only 2% of people would pass.
The invention of paper facilitated this system. The Song built upon that bureaucratic system with examinations creating an elaborate bureaucracy. Unlike previous dynasties, the Song allowed for anyone to take the exam except criminals, monks and some craftsmen. This system enabled a new group of scholar officials to take power. The scholar-official was a civil servant appointed by the emperor to perform day-to- day governance from the Han Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty in 1912 (about 400 years). This new ruling class was call scholar gentry.
The consequences of the state examinations and bureaucracy were that the Song were able to centralize power and take it away from the landed aristocracy and the generals who normally held power in previous dynasties. It also theoretically allowed for some social mobility. In theory, the lower classes could be part of the bureaucracy. However, the landed elite were better able to send their children to schools to prepare them for the exam. It also created a meritocracy- a system were people got their jobs based on their ability and not on their social or political connections. Lastly, the rise of the the scholar officials led to a long period of political stability that help the Song almost reach industrialization.
The The Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE) established the first centralized bureaucratic empire and thus created the need for an administrative system. The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties then created the state Civil Service Exam. Under this system, government jobs were given to those that passed exams based on Confucian principles. Th Tang established state schools that would prepare students for the exams. The exams were extremely competitive. Only 2% of people would pass.
The invention of paper facilitated this system. The Song built upon that bureaucratic system with examinations creating an elaborate bureaucracy. Unlike previous dynasties, the Song allowed for anyone to take the exam except criminals, monks and some craftsmen. This system enabled a new group of scholar officials to take power. The scholar-official was a civil servant appointed by the emperor to perform day-to- day governance from the Han Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty in 1912 (about 400 years). This new ruling class was call scholar gentry.
The consequences of the state examinations and bureaucracy were that the Song were able to centralize power and take it away from the landed aristocracy and the generals who normally held power in previous dynasties. It also theoretically allowed for some social mobility. In theory, the lower classes could be part of the bureaucracy. However, the landed elite were better able to send their children to schools to prepare them for the exam. It also created a meritocracy- a system were people got their jobs based on their ability and not on their social or political connections. Lastly, the rise of the the scholar officials led to a long period of political stability that help the Song almost reach industrialization.
Centralized rule
The goal to governing is to create order and obedience. One of the ways all empires centralized and maintained rule is by creating a central capital. The Song capital was Kaifeng. Through that central capital they controlled the entire empire. The way to also keep order was by keeping an organized and loyal army that had advanced technology like crossbows and iron weapons. These armies were used to conquer then control regions.
Once the Song conquered a region they would divide it into smaller providences that were easier to control. The Song then used administrators that had passed the civil service exam and knew Confucianism well to control the providence. Those administrators were responsible for enforcing the laws, collecting taxes, building public works projects, controlling the local military and regulating the markets. They also had to make sure that people are obedient to the emperor. The Administrators did that by controlling the military to suppress rebellion if needed. With the taxes, the administrators built public works like roads and postal services used to increase communication, trade and facilitate the movement of troops. The Chinese also used standardized currency including paper money, standardized money and standard language to centralize rule. All of those measure allowed the government to control the population and the economy as well as provide peace.
Foreign Policy
To deal with foreigners that included foreign merchants and nomads the Song relied on two tools created by previous dynasties. The first tool was the Tribute System. The Tribute System the Song rulers made other countries, merchants or nomads acknowledge that the Song was the Middle Kingdom (The center of civilization). They then would be required to give tribute or gifts to the emperor. Part of the ritual of giving gifts included the practice of Kowtow. That the practice of bowing and kneeling to show respect. By doing that, the merchants would have access to the Chinese markets. Nomads would have access to Song manufactured goods like silk and saddles. Other countries would not be guaranteed peace.
Sometimes the nomads were more powerful than the Chinese dynasties and demanded they they get the tribute. For example, the Xiongnu became so powerful that the Han emperor had to recognize them as an equal and provide them with "gifts" to keep them from continuing to raid the northern providences. Similarly the Uighur nomads from central Asia extorted gifts or tribute from the Tang emperors.
The second tool was the Great Wall. Sometimes, nomads like the Xiondu would not accept the Tribute System. As a result, the Chinese dynasties created the The Great Wall. It was first created by the Qing Dynasty from a series of smaller walls. The Song used their taxes to maintain the wall and keep invading Nomads out.
The ultimate effect of these administrative techniques was a long period of about 300 years where there was peace in the empire called PAX SINICA or Chinese peace. Song rule and stability brought opportunities for traders and merchants in the surrounding area. There was an increase in trade both regional and cross regional trade.
The goal to governing is to create order and obedience. One of the ways all empires centralized and maintained rule is by creating a central capital. The Song capital was Kaifeng. Through that central capital they controlled the entire empire. The way to also keep order was by keeping an organized and loyal army that had advanced technology like crossbows and iron weapons. These armies were used to conquer then control regions.
Once the Song conquered a region they would divide it into smaller providences that were easier to control. The Song then used administrators that had passed the civil service exam and knew Confucianism well to control the providence. Those administrators were responsible for enforcing the laws, collecting taxes, building public works projects, controlling the local military and regulating the markets. They also had to make sure that people are obedient to the emperor. The Administrators did that by controlling the military to suppress rebellion if needed. With the taxes, the administrators built public works like roads and postal services used to increase communication, trade and facilitate the movement of troops. The Chinese also used standardized currency including paper money, standardized money and standard language to centralize rule. All of those measure allowed the government to control the population and the economy as well as provide peace.
Foreign Policy
To deal with foreigners that included foreign merchants and nomads the Song relied on two tools created by previous dynasties. The first tool was the Tribute System. The Tribute System the Song rulers made other countries, merchants or nomads acknowledge that the Song was the Middle Kingdom (The center of civilization). They then would be required to give tribute or gifts to the emperor. Part of the ritual of giving gifts included the practice of Kowtow. That the practice of bowing and kneeling to show respect. By doing that, the merchants would have access to the Chinese markets. Nomads would have access to Song manufactured goods like silk and saddles. Other countries would not be guaranteed peace.
Sometimes the nomads were more powerful than the Chinese dynasties and demanded they they get the tribute. For example, the Xiongnu became so powerful that the Han emperor had to recognize them as an equal and provide them with "gifts" to keep them from continuing to raid the northern providences. Similarly the Uighur nomads from central Asia extorted gifts or tribute from the Tang emperors.
The second tool was the Great Wall. Sometimes, nomads like the Xiondu would not accept the Tribute System. As a result, the Chinese dynasties created the The Great Wall. It was first created by the Qing Dynasty from a series of smaller walls. The Song used their taxes to maintain the wall and keep invading Nomads out.
The ultimate effect of these administrative techniques was a long period of about 300 years where there was peace in the empire called PAX SINICA or Chinese peace. Song rule and stability brought opportunities for traders and merchants in the surrounding area. There was an increase in trade both regional and cross regional trade.
End of the Song Dynasty
By the end of the Song, the bureaucracy had grown so large that it contributed to the empire's weakness. By creating so many jobs and by paying these officials so handsomely, the Song increased the costs of government to the point that they began drying up China's surplus wealth. Additionally, the scholar officials began to take away funds funds from the armies. This declining wealth contributed to a poorly funded army allowing the Song to be taken over by THE MONGOLS.
Economic Developments
Thematic Focus - Governance (ECON)
Learning Objective
Explain the systems effects of innovation on the Chinese economy over time.
Historical Developments: The economy of Song China became increasingly commercialized while continuing to depend on free peasant and artisanal labor. The economy of Song China flourished as a result of increased productive capacity, expanding trade networks, and innovations in agriculture and manufacturing.
Reading Questions
Learning Objective
Explain the systems effects of innovation on the Chinese economy over time.
Historical Developments: The economy of Song China became increasingly commercialized while continuing to depend on free peasant and artisanal labor. The economy of Song China flourished as a result of increased productive capacity, expanding trade networks, and innovations in agriculture and manufacturing.
Reading Questions
- What was the Grand Canal?
- Give examples of innovations in agriculture
- How did specific innovations in agriculture affect Song China?
- How did steel impact Song China?
- List three other items of trade from Song China.
- What is commercialization?
- What is free peasant and artisan labor?
- What is urbanization?
- What is protoindustrialization?
Song China: Innovations and Commercialization
Introduction
The Song bureaucracy brought stability to the empire. Increased stability led to an agricultural surplus and the availability of food allowed for population population growth. Along with that population growth came urbanization-creation of cities. That stability allowed for innovations that led to commercialization. People began to produce not jut for themselves but for sale. Commercialization affected other regions of the world. Chinese artisans would create products for consumption by local and foreign lands instead of only producing items and food for themselves. Increased commercialization locally allowed the Chinese to increase transregional trade along the Silk Road. Many Chinese goods like silk and porcelain began to be traded. Chinese innovations also began to spread along the Silk Road.
The Song bureaucracy brought stability to the empire. Increased stability led to an agricultural surplus and the availability of food allowed for population population growth. Along with that population growth came urbanization-creation of cities. That stability allowed for innovations that led to commercialization. People began to produce not jut for themselves but for sale. Commercialization affected other regions of the world. Chinese artisans would create products for consumption by local and foreign lands instead of only producing items and food for themselves. Increased commercialization locally allowed the Chinese to increase transregional trade along the Silk Road. Many Chinese goods like silk and porcelain began to be traded. Chinese innovations also began to spread along the Silk Road.
Agricultural Productivity & Increased Surplus
Innovations in agriculture led to increased production that then led to commercialization. China was still a heavily agricultural society that depended on peasant labor. During the Song, the government started to grant ownership of land to farmers. Song farmers used several unique farming techniques to help use every inch of available land. Terracing steep hillsides was common practice in ancient China. Terraces were carved into the hillsides which would then catch water ran downhill. Increased regional trade led to the introduction of Champa rice that was brought from Vietnam as tribute. This was fast ripening rice that also grew quickly. This led to a huge increase in rice production. That led to commercialization. Farmers began to grow the crops for sale and not just subsistence. With the sale of the rice they could buy other goods such as tea, oil or wine. Champa rice also led to a significant increase in Population. Political stability and the available food led to a population boom numbering 100 million by 1100 CE. The availability of food also led to having fewer rebellions. The increased food also led to increased urbanization. That meant more people were able to move to the cities and have jobs that were not growing food. |
Expansion of the Grand Canal
One of the primary innovations that led to increased economic development was the Grand Canal. The Tang Dynasty had previously invested heavily in improving roads and canals. One of those canals had been built previously by the Sui Dynasty. The emperor wanted a safer faster way to ship grain to the capital. The Song took advantage of all of those improvements by previous dynasties. The canal stretches over 1,100 miles from Beijing to the city of Hangzhou. The canal also connects the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The Grand Canal during Song times spurred the greatest amount of economic activity and commercial profit. The canal facilitated the movement of goods. That allowed for increased regional trade. The Grand Canal became an essential part of the government by feeding the population, avoiding rebellion, increasing urbanization, and keeping the Mandate of Heaven. |
Steel and Iron Production
Increased food led to artisans focusing on other things like the production of steel and iron. In the 4th Century CE, the Chinese discovered that they could use "black earth" or coal to produce greater amounts of iron goods. Under the Song the metallurgy industry rose. The Chinese later learned how to use coal and produce steel. Many people using backyard furnaces allowed the song to create a type of proto industrialization- using home based or community based production instead of large factories that would later be popular in Europe during the Industrial Revolution. By the 11th Century, these community furnaces were producing 32,000 units of armor and 16 million arrowheads annually. They would also produce things like cons, farming tools and bells for Buddhist temples. |
Silk
Silk was one of the most coveted items that people around the world wanted from the Chinese. The earliest evidence of silk production in China was 4,000 to 3,000 BCE. silkworm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed as artisans in the silk-making industry. By the time of the Song, artisans would also produce silk for consumption both within China but also for sale in the rest of the world. Silk became a highly sought after product by the world's elite. During the Song era, as the production of silk became commercialized women lost their place in the industry. Urban workshops and state run factories produced the majority of the silk during the Song Dynasty taking economic power away from women. |
Porcelain
Commercialization also depended on Chinese artisans specially porcelain artisans. This is luxurious dishware that the Chinese developed. Porcelain is lightweight and durable. It is also light in color giving craftsmen a good medium to create beautiful designs. It helped increase trade in China. The government supported this as an important source of revenue. Early in the Song period, ports were established in Guangzhou (Canton), Quanzhou, Hangzhou and Ningbo to facilitate commercial sales of items such as porcelain. |
Paper and printing This is arguably the most important innovation that originated during song times. The Song dynasty was the first to develop woodblock movable printing (seen above). The Song used this innovation to print manuals on farming, iron making and other methods that improved the economy. The Song used its paper and printing ability to print currency. in the 11,00's they became the first government to print paper money. Paper money was lighter to carry and gave people flexibility on what and how they could trade and buy. Paper money ultimately led to increased commercial activity during this period. Paper and printing would also be used by the government to administer the civil service exam and to produce manuals on farming and metallurgy. |
Gun Powder
Yet another innovation that finds its start during song times. Gun powder was first discovered by alchemist looking for the elixir of eternal life. Initially it was used to entertain with fireworks displays. Soon it was used for military purposes. Gunpowder technology would spread via the Silk Road eventually allowing other empires to improve gunpowder weapon technology. |
Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass was also invented during song times. This compass was used by the army and navy to navigate and better defend the empire. The compass would also be used by merchants at sea and on the Silk Road allowing them to safely travel further increasing trade. This was yet another innovation that led to increased transregional trade. |
Conclusion
Song stability led to an improved economy. China’s economy flourished through a combination of commercial trade, artisanal labor, and technological innovation in manufacturing and improved agricultural practices. China was on the cusp of reaching industrialization similar to Europe but 400 years before. China still became the most prosperous country in the world during medieval times.
Learning Objective
Explain the effects of Chinese cultural traditions on East Asia over time.
Historical Developments
Chinese cultural traditions continued, and they influenced neighboring regions.
Reading Questions
Explain the effects of Chinese cultural traditions on East Asia over time.
Historical Developments
Chinese cultural traditions continued, and they influenced neighboring regions.
Reading Questions
- From most powerful to least powerful, list the six classes of social hierarchy.
- What evidence is there that Chinese society was patriarchal (male dominated).
- Intellectual pursuits, such as literature, thrived in the Song Dynasty. What inventions from earlier Chinese history allowed this to happen?
- What is Sinification?
- How did Buddhism diffuse to China?
- What do the three main types (Theravada, Mahayana, and Tibetan) of Buddhism have in common?
- Explain how Zen Buddhism is a syncretic religion.
- What is neo-Confucianism and how is it a syncretic religion?
- JAPAN : What were some similarities and differences to China?
- KOREA: What were some similarities and differences to China?
- VIETNAM What were some similarities and differences to China?
Song and Asian Society before 1450
Introduction:
Song society was different than other medieval societies in Afro Eurasia. Chinese society was shaped by the actions of the state. The civil service exam created the state officials who gained prestige in Chinese society. For centuries, these officials influenced the culture of the elite. Because the scholar officials were influenced by Confucianism, they in turn influenced the views of peasants and women in society.
Song society was different than other medieval societies in Afro Eurasia. Chinese society was shaped by the actions of the state. The civil service exam created the state officials who gained prestige in Chinese society. For centuries, these officials influenced the culture of the elite. Because the scholar officials were influenced by Confucianism, they in turn influenced the views of peasants and women in society.
Women in Song ChinaWomen's status in Song China declined compared to previous dynasties and nomadic women. Neo-Confucian values reinforced the idea that a woman's role is subordinate to the male's in the family and society. One example of this type of patriarchy in Song China was foot binding. Some upper class families subjected their daughters to foot binding, a years-long process of tightly binding a girl's feet to keep them small, a process that also mutilated them. The idea was that this would ensure a better marriage—and family alliances—for the family.
Despite this, women played an instrumental role in Chinese society. Property rights improved for women during this time. Women earned the right to control their dowries and inherit property. Many others learned to read and write. Texts were written specifically for women with some women publishing their own books. |
Nobles The landed aristocracy or nobles sitll help much power. They were the ones that still owned the majority of the land. They were also the ones able to send their children to universities that would enable them to pass the civil service exams to get the government jobs. Government Officials Due to the state bureaucracy, the new class that arose during Song times were the Scholar Officials. The meritocracy allowed for some social mobility. It also gave more political and social power to the scholar officials and took it from the landed aristocracy and military. Peasants The Song dynasty, as well as all empires during this period, depended heavily on peasant labor. Without peasants all would starve. That meant that in Chinese society peasants were held to a higher regard than merchants. Artisans Due to urbanization and commercialization, the Song also relied heavily on artisans to create the silk textiles, porcelain, iron and other products that were exported. Military As scholar officials gained more power and prestige, they would look down upon the military. Peasants could gain wealth through the military but since there was more prestige in being cultured like the scholar officials, military people were seen just below the peasants in the social hierarchy. Merchants Even though merchants could achieve a very high income an trade flourished during the Song Dynasty, they were regarded as the lowest class because they were believed to take advantage of the labor of others by trading items for a profit. This was a Confucian idea and, because Confucianism was so prevalent and widespread throughout the country, it had a great influence on social class. Slaves Slavery was outlawed by the Song but still practiced during this time. Song slavery was small compared to other societies. |
Cultural Developments
China: Cultural Center of Asia
Introduction
Chinese innovations facilitated the spread of Chinese culture. Two important innovations that allowed for the growth of culture during Song times were woodblock printing and paper.They were invented earlier than the Song. Paper was invented during the first century and woodblock printing was invented during the Tang dynasty.
Chinese innovations facilitated the spread of Chinese culture. Two important innovations that allowed for the growth of culture during Song times were woodblock printing and paper.They were invented earlier than the Song. Paper was invented during the first century and woodblock printing was invented during the Tang dynasty.
By the time of the Song, paper making and woodblock printing took an important role in Chinese culture. These inventions allowed the Song to create manuals on farming and iron smelting as well as other crafts. They also allowed for the printing of Buddhist, Confucian and Taoist texts that could spread across Asia. Poetry and literature created a well educated class of elite that included the scholar officials of the Song bureaucracy.
Buddhism in China
Buddhism has its origins in South Asia. It began to spread to other parts of the world through the patronage of Ashoka, emperor of India, around 230 BCE. Xuanzang, a Chinese scholar and missionary, traveled to India and returned with Buddhist texts, spreading the ideas through China in the 7th Century. In the centuries that followed merchants played a vital role in spreading Buddhism along the Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade networks.
Buddhism ideas easily adapted to other local cultural traditions such as Daoism and Shinto played a vital role in spreading Buddhism in Afro-Eurasia in the period before 1450. For example Taoists (Daoists) adopted the Buddhist idea of emptiness. Confucianism and Buddhism had similar ideas of high moral character. With the fall of the Han, Buddhism gained many followers and Confucianism lost favor even with the elite. However, by the time of the Tang, Confucianism began to make a comeback. Tang rulers wanted to promote local beliefs like Confucianism and downplay Buddhism. This resulted syncretism and the creation of Neo-Confucianism-a mixing of traditional Confucianism with Buddhism and Daoism. Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, Chinese emperors began to favor Neo- Confucianism; monks and nuns were secularized; temples and libraries were destroyed
Spread of Buddhism into East Asia
Paper allowed for Buddhist ideas to spread. Chinese texts facilitated the spread of Chinese culture to Korea, Vietnam and Japan. Buddhist ideas and Neo-Confucianist ideas also spread to the rest of East Asia as the Chinese expanded militarily, they would force some states into the tribute system. Non Chinese societies came under the heavy influence of Chinese culture. This process was called sinification. The extent to which each region experienced sinification differed from Korea to Vietnam and Japan.
Cultural influence in KoreaBecause Korea is so close to China, there was temporary conquest some colonization by Chinse settlers. The Chinese tried to install puppet governments but the Koreans protested. This made the Chinese withdraw but Korea was made into a tributary state. The Silla, Koryo and Joseon dynasties remained politically independent. Still, cultural influences persisted. The new capital of Kum-song was modeled directly o n the Chinese capital of Chang'an. They began using the civil service exam but it was not open to peasants. Ceremonial clothing, silks and fancy teas as well as Confucian and Buddhist texts made their way into the hands of Korean aristocracy. Thousands of Korean students were sent to China to study Confucianism, natural science and art. This resulted in Chinese style schools opening in Korea.
Women were negative impact on women. Women used to be able to inherit property, have choice in marriage, sing and dance late at night and have their husbands join them in living in her parents home after marriage. All of this was strongly discouraged by the patriarchal beliefs of Neo-Confucianism. This had a particular effect on aristocratic women. Still, Korea kept some independence. First, they continued to have political independence. Second, the cultural influence mostly affected the elite. Buddhism did spread among the the peasants but for the most part, Korean kept their culture. They developed their own alphabet known as hagul. |
Cultural Influence in VietnamThe Vietnamese Peninsula was also influenced by China. It was under direct control of Chinese from 111 BCE to 939 CE. However, the Vietnamese also achieved political independence after the Tang dynasty became weak, but provided tribute to the Chinese. The Koreans also used the civil service exam and educated their officials in Confucian values. Korean rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven and used Chinese court rituals. Chinese clothes and hairstyles were adopted by the aristocracy. Economically, Chinese style irrigation was introduced and Champa rice was exported to China.
Women were more independent in Vietnam than in Korea or China and resented the inferior status that Confucianist values brought. Vietnamese women continued to choose their husbands, and married men lived in the wives' household. The Vietnamese also rejected the practice of foot binding and having multiple wives. The cultural changes affected only the elite. The government was not as centralized. Many villages continued to operate independently. That is because scholar officials were mostly allied to their villages rather than the emperor. Villagers continued to cock fighting and chewing betel nuts. The Vietnamese also developed their own writing system like in Korea. |
Cultural Influence in JapanJapan achieved the most independence. The Japanese islands are the furthest away from China out of the three states. That gave them a geopolitical as well as a cultural advantage. First, the Chinese , including the Mongols, were never able to successfully invade Japan. Thus, when the Japanese borrowed culturally, they did it voluntarily and chose what they borrowed rather then have the cultural influence of a conquering nation. The Japanese aristocrat Shotoku Taishi went on the mission to China with monks, scholars, artists and students to study the Chinese culture. They returned and proclaimed the Japanese emperor in the same style as the Chinese with Confucian and Buddhist values. They used Chinese style court rituals. They also borrowed the Chinese taxation and law systems as well as the use of providences to facilitate rule. They capital of Nara's architecture was modeled after Chang'an. Various schools of Chinese Buddhism took root in Japan. Chinese writing, poetry, were also adopted by the elite.
However, the Japanese never successfully created a centralized bureaucracy. The real power did not belong to the emperor but rather to the Shogun. The emperor was only a figure head. The Confucian schools were only for the sons of aristocrats. Although Buddhism took hold, the Shinto religion and the belief in kami or spirits associated with nature and ancestors never went away. However, the Japanese did develop their own type of Buddhism called Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhism was Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism mixed with Shinto emphasizing the value of meditation and intuition. During the Heian period a distinctly Japanese culture emerged. The Japanese developed their own writing, poetry, theater and artistic styles. Japanese women retained their rights to hold property and could remarry. Women did not experience foot binding. Japanese couples could live on their own or with the wife's family. Marriages could be broken easily. |