Topic 6.6 Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World
Learning Objective
Explain how various environmental factors contributed to the development of varied patterns of migration from 1750 to 1900.
Historical Developments
Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demographics in both industrialized and unindustrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living.
Because of the nature of new modes of transportation, both internal and external migrants increasingly relocated to cities. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the 19th century. The new methods of transportation also allowed for many migrants to return, periodically or permanently, to their home societies.
Return of migrants:
Migrants:
Many individuals chose freely to relocate, often in search of work.
The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semi coerced labor migration, including slavery, Chinese and Indian indentured servitude, and convict labor.
Learning Objective
Explain how various environmental factors contributed to the development of varied patterns of migration from 1750 to 1900.
Historical Developments
Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demographics in both industrialized and unindustrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living.
Because of the nature of new modes of transportation, both internal and external migrants increasingly relocated to cities. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the 19th century. The new methods of transportation also allowed for many migrants to return, periodically or permanently, to their home societies.
Return of migrants:
- Japanese agricultural workers in the Pacific
- Lebanese merchants in the Americas
- Italian industrial workers in Argentina
Migrants:
- Irish to the United States
- British engineers and geologists to South Asia and Africa
Many individuals chose freely to relocate, often in search of work.
The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semi coerced labor migration, including slavery, Chinese and Indian indentured servitude, and convict labor.
Reading Questions
1. How did technology facilitate migration patterns? What was the consequence of the migration patters?
2. Identify the reasons for migration for each of the following:
China
Japan
India
Europe
3. What are indentured servants? What were the living and working conditions for the indentured servants?
4. Why did slavery increase in the Americas after the British abolished it?
5. What is blackbirding?
2. Identify the reasons for migration for each of the following:
China
Japan
India
Europe
3. What are indentured servants? What were the living and working conditions for the indentured servants?
4. Why did slavery increase in the Americas after the British abolished it?
5. What is blackbirding?
New World Economy leads to migration: Push and Pull Factors
Capitalism and Industrialization encouraged businesses to sell their mass-produced products to as many markets as possible. Capitalists knew that selling their products globally will increase their profits. Since steamships could transport more goods at a faster speed, businesses in the Global North exported large quantities of manufactured products to every region of the world. The movement of raw materials, products, and people increased due to the speed and size of steamships
These same new modes of transportation allowed both internal and external migrants increasingly to relocate to cities looking for economic opportunities in the factories or plantations. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the 19th century. The new methods of transportation also allowed for many migrants to return, periodically or permanently, to their home societies.
These same new modes of transportation allowed both internal and external migrants increasingly to relocate to cities looking for economic opportunities in the factories or plantations. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the 19th century. The new methods of transportation also allowed for many migrants to return, periodically or permanently, to their home societies.
China
Many Chinese were tiring to escape the poverty and famine created prior to Taiping Rebellion. Many decided to try their luck elsewhere. Death and destruction from the Opium Wars and Boxer rebellion also contributed to many Chinese leaving. Most of the people that left China were poor peasants looking for better opportunities.
Job opportunities were also a major factor that led to Chinese migration. They also moved to the US during the Gold Rush of the 1950's and to work on the Trans Continental Railroad.
Job opportunities were also a major factor that led to Chinese migration. They also moved to the US during the Gold Rush of the 1950's and to work on the Trans Continental Railroad.
JapanMany of these Japanese who migrated to Hawaii were farmers and peasants from southern Japan, having suffered a series of crop failures at home. All were looking for employment and better jobs. The Japanese and Hawaiian governments came to an agreement that sent 29,000 Japanese to work the sugar canes in Hawaii. Some attempted to create settler colonies in Mexico but failed. Many Japanese students also leaving Japan to study in the US. Most settled in the San Francisco and Seattle regions.
IndiaDuring the Modern Period, the African slave trade ended due to the diffusion of Enlightenment ideas in the Atlantic World. Needing cheap laborers in their Caribbean and South African colonies, the British Empire used migratory workers from India in a system known as indentured servitude. The Indian diaspora worked on plantations growing sugar and other cash crops. Their harsh working conditions mirrored that of African slavery. However, poverty in India was so difficult that it drove many Indians to those difficult conditions. That poverty in India was caused because British Industry had put many Indians out of work. Also the Great Famine of 1876 caused many to leave.
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Europe
There were several push factors and pull factors that led to increased migration to the Americas. Across Europe, people were leaving their homelands for the economic opportunities in the U.S.’s factories and plantations in Latin America. Irish immigrants emigrated out of Ireland as a result of a potato famine. Jewish Europeans immigrated to the Americas in order to escape religious persecution and anti-Semitism. Italian immigrants left to settle in Argentina and the US because of the wars of unification in the middle of the 18th century. Most Italians that came to the US went to the cities looking for work in the factories. One of the reasons many wen to Argentina was that Argentina had pro immigration laws. For example, Argentina stated that those who were looking to cultivate the lands, improve domestic industries, and teach the arts and sciences would not pay taxes. Due to the advancements in steamships, large waves of European immigrants resettled in the Americas, creating new diasporas. However, because of the ease of travel created by the steamships many Italians were able to return home after a few years working in Argentina.
Migration and Labor
Indentured Servants
As seen above, many people decided to relocate willingly. However, in many instances coerced and semi-coerced labor persisted. Abolition of African slavery left need for agricultural labor in the Americas. Driven by the need for money, loss of land or warfare, Asians signed indentured servitude agreements. Indian men, women, and children sign a work contract that lasts 4 to 7 years. In exchange for their labor, indentured servants received free passage to their destination, food, clothing, and shelter once they arrived. Indentured servants worked in plantation conditions that mirrored slavery. Women received 50 percent of a man's wage. Disease was common, and death rates were double that of the rest of the people in the area. You can see evidence of the working conditions below. |
Source: Complaint letter from an Indian indentured worker, sent to the Office of the Protector of Immigrants, South Africa, 1917.
I complain that I am not allowed proper time to eat my meals during the day. I have to commence work at about 5:30 in the morning and finish off about 8:30 p.m. daily. I work on Sundays up to 2 o’clock. I am overworked and the wages paid me is not sufficient. Whenever I stop away for a day in a month, it is deducted from my pay and I am told by my master that I will have to make up these days at the expiration of my indenture.
I complain that I am not allowed proper time to eat my meals during the day. I have to commence work at about 5:30 in the morning and finish off about 8:30 p.m. daily. I work on Sundays up to 2 o’clock. I am overworked and the wages paid me is not sufficient. Whenever I stop away for a day in a month, it is deducted from my pay and I am told by my master that I will have to make up these days at the expiration of my indenture.
Chinese contract workers were strictly controlled in three year (3) contracts. Many worked in the British owned mines in Malaysia were living conditions were appalling, disease and accidents generated high death rates in the mines. Indentured laborers are sometimes derogatorily referred to as "coolies." Today, this term carries negative connotations of passivity and submissiveness, but originally it was an Anglicization of a Chinese work that refers to manual workers impressed into service by force or deception. In fact, indentured labor was frequently acquired through deceptive practices and even violence.
Convict Labor
The British lost their penal colony in the Americas after the US gained independence. They turned to elsewhere. The British sent their convicts to Australia from England, Scotland and Ireland. Between the years 1788 and 1850, 162,000 convicts in 806 ships were sent to Australia by the English Most convicts were rarely imprisoned. Instead they performed free labor for the colonists. For those convicts lucky enough to survive the near starvation, unsanitary conditions and near death beatings; release was sometimes granted but rare. One could receive a ticket-of-leave for paying their debt to society with hard work and good behavior. Most convicts stayed and continued their lives in Australia. |
Slavery
Slavery in the Americas accelerated at the same time Britain and other maritime powers outlawed this form of commerce. Slavery in the US, Cuba and Brazil increased because of increased demand for sugar and increased demand for cotton used in British textile factories. Slavery in the US ended in 1865 after the Civil War. Slavery in Brazil was not outlawed until 1888. Slave labor was also used in Africa to produce cash crops. The French often paid their soldiers in slaves. Slavery. Slavery in Africa was not abolished until last century.
Slavery in the Americas accelerated at the same time Britain and other maritime powers outlawed this form of commerce. Slavery in the US, Cuba and Brazil increased because of increased demand for sugar and increased demand for cotton used in British textile factories. Slavery in the US ended in 1865 after the Civil War. Slavery in Brazil was not outlawed until 1888. Slave labor was also used in Africa to produce cash crops. The French often paid their soldiers in slaves. Slavery. Slavery in Africa was not abolished until last century.
Blackbirding
While there is evidence that some of the 62,000 people sent to Australia came willingly, and signed contracts to work on the plantations, many others were lured or taken forcibly onto the boats. This practice is what's known as blackbirding. Many workers did not know what they were signing up for. Others were kidnapped. The majority of the laborers were men, but women and children were also taken. Most were originally from Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands, however workers were also "recruited" from the Loyalty Islands (part of New Caledonia), Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Tonga and Fiji. Emelda Davis, president of the organisation Australian South Sea Islanders Port Jackson, said her grandfather was kidnapped from the island of Tanna in Vanuatu as a 12-year-old boy. "He was put on a boat with no say — couldn't say goodbye to his family — and sent to Australia to work on the Queensland sugar farms," she said. |
Abolition of Slavery and Modern Day Slavery
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