READING QUESTIONS
1. What groups of people lived in Haiti before the revolution?
2. How did the long-term and immediate causes of the Haitian revolution differ?
3. How did different groups of people in Haiti understand the Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality?
4. What did the Haitian revolution accomplish, and what problems did the new country face following independence?
5. In what ways did the Haitian revolution produce freedom? What were the limits of this freedom?
6. In what ways did the Haitian revolution produce equality? What were the limits of this equality?
1. What groups of people lived in Haiti before the revolution?
2. How did the long-term and immediate causes of the Haitian revolution differ?
3. How did different groups of people in Haiti understand the Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality?
4. What did the Haitian revolution accomplish, and what problems did the new country face following independence?
5. In what ways did the Haitian revolution produce freedom? What were the limits of this freedom?
6. In what ways did the Haitian revolution produce equality? What were the limits of this equality?
The Haitian Revolution
BEFORE THE REVOLUTION
Some historians argue that while the American Revolution produced more changes to its government, the French Revolution was much more groundbreaking. The fact that the French people captured, imprisoned, and eventually executed their king (Louis XVI) and queen (Marie Antoinette). This showed Europe and all their colonies that the seemingly impossible can happen in a revolution. In Haiti, one of France’s sugar colonies in the Caribbean, news of the French Revolution sparked new ideas on the tiny island. But it’s not going to be the wealthy, white men that will lead this revolution; it’s their slaves.
Some historians argue that while the American Revolution produced more changes to its government, the French Revolution was much more groundbreaking. The fact that the French people captured, imprisoned, and eventually executed their king (Louis XVI) and queen (Marie Antoinette). This showed Europe and all their colonies that the seemingly impossible can happen in a revolution. In Haiti, one of France’s sugar colonies in the Caribbean, news of the French Revolution sparked new ideas on the tiny island. But it’s not going to be the wealthy, white men that will lead this revolution; it’s their slaves.
Class Struggle:
Haiti was a small French colony on an island in the Caribbean, which makes Haiti’s climate ideal for growing sugar. Before the revolution, Haiti was France’s most productive colony and arguably the most valuable colony in the entire world as it produced 40% of the world’s sugar and more than half of its coffee. France’s king, Louis XVI, loved Haiti’s sugar, especially when used to bake pastries and other desserts. The most powerful and wealthy class in Haiti were the grand blancs. These were the wealthy French plantation owners that benefited the most from the sugar production and were about 2% of the island population. Below them is the gens de couleur (the free people of color) which consisted of mulattoes (people of European and African ancestry) and the freed Africans. |
Representing 8% of the population, this class was significantly less powerful and had access to fewer job opportunities compared to the grand blancs. The remaining 90% of the Haitian population was African slaves, all brought to the island in the Atlantic Slave Trade. The natives on the island were completely wiped out due to infectious diseases from Europe and Africa. This caused the demand for African slave labor. The African slaves were owned by the grand blancs and worked brutal conditions on the sugar plantations.
Economic Issues:
Revolution had different meanings to each class on Haiti. For the grand blancs, revolution meant political and economic independence from France. Similar to the white elite in the British colonies in North America, the grand blancs hated mercantilism and wanted to gain more profit from their sugar plantations. The grand blancs wanted to be independent so they could control the government and economy, not Louis XVI. For the gens de couleur, they wanted economic opportunities. Despite having their freedom, the gens de couleur were seen as second-class due to their African ancestry, which limited their job prospects politically and economically. For this class, racial inequality was the main issue. But for the large slave population, they wanted to abolish slavery. Not only were the slaves denied rights or any sense of humanity, but the intense labor and horrific working conditions on the sugar plantations made life as an African slave extremely brutal. In fact, the death rate of slaves was so high that the grand blancs imported about 40,000 slaves (which is more than the entire white population on the island) every year! Representing 90% of the population, slavery will become the main focus of the revolution.
Revolution had different meanings to each class on Haiti. For the grand blancs, revolution meant political and economic independence from France. Similar to the white elite in the British colonies in North America, the grand blancs hated mercantilism and wanted to gain more profit from their sugar plantations. The grand blancs wanted to be independent so they could control the government and economy, not Louis XVI. For the gens de couleur, they wanted economic opportunities. Despite having their freedom, the gens de couleur were seen as second-class due to their African ancestry, which limited their job prospects politically and economically. For this class, racial inequality was the main issue. But for the large slave population, they wanted to abolish slavery. Not only were the slaves denied rights or any sense of humanity, but the intense labor and horrific working conditions on the sugar plantations made life as an African slave extremely brutal. In fact, the death rate of slaves was so high that the grand blancs imported about 40,000 slaves (which is more than the entire white population on the island) every year! Representing 90% of the population, slavery will become the main focus of the revolution.
Political Inefficiency:
The French Government and King Louis XVI ruled over the Haitian colony and benefitted greatly from the island’s sugar production. But the French Revolution completely changed everything. When news spread to Haiti about the how the French people captured and imprisoned their king and queen, the grand blancs saw this as an opportunity to break away from France’s control. But when French revolutionaries in Paris published the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, which circulated in newspapers and pamphlets in Haiti. The line that caused the most frenzy was the first article, “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” This idea challenged the very slave system that kept most of the islanders locked in chains. The gens de couleur, some of whom were educated in the Enlightenment, claimed that racial equality and abolishing slavery were essential, thus creating tension between the white and black populations. The gens de couleur violently revolted against the grans blancs in 1791, but failed to overthrow the colonial government. Then the slave population joined the revolution and rebelled against their white masters in a massive slave revolt. In 1794, a former slave named Toussaint L’Ouverture (pronounced Too-San Loo-Vuhr-Tur) assumed leadership of the slave rebellion. L’Ouverture sent a declaration throughout Haiti stating, “I want Liberty and Equality to reign in Haiti. I am working to make that happen. Unite yourselves to us, brothers and fight with us for the same cause.” By uniting the gen de couleur with the large African slave population, L’Ouverture achieved the upper hand against the grand blancs. |
A Short Summary of the Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution has two phases. The first phase focused on ending slavery. When the slave revolt began, the grand blancs were immediately outnumbered by the African forces. What ensured the slaves’ success was the interference of the British and Spanish Empires, who saw both the French and Haitian Revolutions as an opportunity to weaken the French Empire while expanding their own. The British took it a step further by invading Haiti in attempts to take over the colony. With so few options, French military commanders in Haiti convinced the French government to officially declare all slaves in the French Empire free. This made Toussaint L’Ouverture turn his armies against the invading British forces and won, becoming the most successful slave revolt in world history. However, Haiti was not given independence from France. |
Emperor Napoleon, seeking to expand the French Empire both in Europe and overseas, attempts to recapture Haiti under his control, claiming France’s laws about ending slavery did not apply to their colonies. Napoleon sent French troops to the island, where they captured General L’Ouverture (who later died in prison). Rumors spread how the French wanted to reintroduce slavery to the island, which sparked the second phase of the revolution: the fight for independence. Despite the French military horrifically killing women and children and using man-eating dogs to kill Haitians, diseases like yellow fever killed thousands of the French soldiers. Cutting their losses, Napoleon abandoned Haiti. In 1804, L’Ouverture's’ successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines wrote the Haitian Declaration of Independence, proclaiming Haiti is a free nation and independent from the French Empire.
Successes of the Haitian Revolution:
In several world history textbooks, the American and French Revolutions are usually highlighted significantly whereas the revolutionary outcomes in Haiti are ignored or downplayed. The Haitian Revolution matters because those who were deprived of rights, freedom, and humanity were the ones revolutionizing society. This greatly challenged the idea of “black inferiority” that was believed by many white Europeans. While other Atlantic Revolutions denied change to specific groups, the Haitian Revolution challenged the world by believing that no one should be a slave and that the people who need the most protection from injustice should be protected by their government. This is the only revolution where the lowest order in society—slaves—became equal, free, and independent citizens. The grand blancs who wanted to continue slavery were rapidly driven off the island by their former slaves. Some Europeans remained on the island but were not considered citizens due to their white ancestry. The Haitians established the Republic of Haiti, creating the 2nd independent nation in the Americas.
In several world history textbooks, the American and French Revolutions are usually highlighted significantly whereas the revolutionary outcomes in Haiti are ignored or downplayed. The Haitian Revolution matters because those who were deprived of rights, freedom, and humanity were the ones revolutionizing society. This greatly challenged the idea of “black inferiority” that was believed by many white Europeans. While other Atlantic Revolutions denied change to specific groups, the Haitian Revolution challenged the world by believing that no one should be a slave and that the people who need the most protection from injustice should be protected by their government. This is the only revolution where the lowest order in society—slaves—became equal, free, and independent citizens. The grand blancs who wanted to continue slavery were rapidly driven off the island by their former slaves. Some Europeans remained on the island but were not considered citizens due to their white ancestry. The Haitians established the Republic of Haiti, creating the 2nd independent nation in the Americas.
Limitations of the Haitian Revolution:
Since the revolution, Haiti has dealt with many unintentional consequences that would lead to the nation’s present-day poverty and political corruption. During the revolution, most sugar plantations were destroyed, or Haitian farmers refused to grow sugar due to its legacy with African slavery. This caused Haiti’s economy to gradually decline over time. In addition, the French government demanded the Haitians pay an enormous “independence debt” ($21 billion dollars) in exchange for recognizing Haiti as a free nation. It took Haiti well over a century to pay this debt, which sank Haiti’s economy into poverty. |
To make matters worse, the new United States actively tried to stop the influences of Haiti’s revolution. U.S. President Thomas Jefferson (a slave owner) wanted Haiti to fail as a nation, believing that Africans were not fit to govern or control an economy without white people controlling them. The U.S. refused to recognize Haiti as a nation and issued an embargo on Haiti, where the U.S. stopped all trade with Haiti, thus damaging Haiti’s economy even more. The Haitians blamed their weak government for the declining economy, leading the way for violent rebellions. Since its independence, Haiti has suffered through a series of military dictators taking over the country by force, creating an unstable nation that could not fulfill the Enlightenment ideas that inspired their revolution.
While news of Haiti’s success did inspire some slave revolts, slavery actually increased in the Americas because of the Haitian Revolution. When Haiti’s production of sugar fell, the Spanish increased their slave population in Cuba to take over the sugar market. And after Napoleon’s defeat in Haiti, he also sold the remaining French territory in North America to the United States (known as the Louisiana Purchase). This territory created more states in the U.S., causing African slavery to increase within the United States. And Napoleon reversed the French law that abolished slavery in the French Empire, continuing the practice of slavery for several more decades.