Learning Objective
Explain how and why states in the Americas developed and changed over time.
Historical Developments
In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, and expanded in scope and reach.
State systems in the Americas:
A. Explain how the Mississippian Culture organized their government and society.
The Maya City-States (peak: 250-900 CE)
A. What institutions, policies and practices did the Maya use to consolidate and expand their reach?
B. Explain the role of religion in Maya government and culture.
C. Why were the Mayans called the “Greeks of the New World” (give specific examples in your answer)?
The Aztecs (c. 1200-1500 CE)
A. How did the Aztecs utilize a tribute system to control their population?
B. What institutions, policies and practices did the Aztec use to consolidate and expand their reach?
C. How was the Aztec society organized? What role did women have?
D. Explain the role of religion in Aztec government and culture. How does this differ from the Maya?
E. What key developments led to the decline of the Aztec?
The Inca (1438-1572 CE)
A. What institutions, policies and practices did the Inca use to consolidate and expand their reach?
B. What was the Inca’s mita system.
C. Explain the role of religion in the Inca Empire (make sure to look at priests, human sacrifice, and animism).
D. Summarize key achievements of the Inca; why were these significant to the empire?
E. What led to the decline of the Inca Empire?
Explain how and why states in the Americas developed and changed over time.
Historical Developments
In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, and expanded in scope and reach.
State systems in the Americas:
- Maya city-states
- Mexica
- Inca
- Cahokia
A. Explain how the Mississippian Culture organized their government and society.
The Maya City-States (peak: 250-900 CE)
A. What institutions, policies and practices did the Maya use to consolidate and expand their reach?
B. Explain the role of religion in Maya government and culture.
C. Why were the Mayans called the “Greeks of the New World” (give specific examples in your answer)?
The Aztecs (c. 1200-1500 CE)
A. How did the Aztecs utilize a tribute system to control their population?
B. What institutions, policies and practices did the Aztec use to consolidate and expand their reach?
C. How was the Aztec society organized? What role did women have?
D. Explain the role of religion in Aztec government and culture. How does this differ from the Maya?
E. What key developments led to the decline of the Aztec?
The Inca (1438-1572 CE)
A. What institutions, policies and practices did the Inca use to consolidate and expand their reach?
B. What was the Inca’s mita system.
C. Explain the role of religion in the Inca Empire (make sure to look at priests, human sacrifice, and animism).
D. Summarize key achievements of the Inca; why were these significant to the empire?
E. What led to the decline of the Inca Empire?
State Building in the Americas
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The Americas did not have contact with Afro Eurasia. The Atlantic Ocean was a barrier that did not allow the people of the world to connect regularly. While pacific Islanders did contact the Americas prior to Columbus and the Vikings also reached the north eastern part what is the US today, there was no regular contact.
Large land based empires still developed. The largest of these empires was the Inca empire followed by the Aztec and the Maya. North America also included a large urbanized civilization called the Cahokia. Watch the video on the left to learn about the Cahokia. Remember to take notes using SPICET. Read the text below. You can get further knowledge by watching the documentaries provided. |
The Maya
The Maya Origins
The origins of the Mayan civilization has a been a question for many decades. Some archeologists believe that the Maya rose from being early villagers with the influence of the prior Olmec Civilization. Yet others believe that the Maya developed their civilization independently without the Olmec influence but after the Olmec had already fallen. New data suggests that the Maya created ritual platforms and communal structures as early as 1000 BCE meaning that the Maya rose earlier than previously thought.
Maya Empire (state building)
The Mayan Civilization did not have a centralized empire. They were organized into city states similar to the Greeks in Europe and the Hausa in West Africa. Each city had an emperor that was chosen by a council of nobles. That emperor had supreme authority over the surrounding areas. The emperor and nobles achieved legitimacy through the religion. They built monumental architecture such as temples to perform rituals that were believed to help the sun rise. The Maya king were believed to have the strongest blood and through blood letting of the kings, the sun kept rising and crops kept growing.
A council chosen from among the nobles helped the emperor rule. The Maya nobles and the emperor appointed governors to administer the local affairs. These administrators were of noble blood and got their successors were normally the sons of nobles. The Maya used a strict set of laws to make sure there was peace. There were no prisons but punishments included death, slavery and fines. The nobles were also subject to the law. Many Maya cities also had large well organized military capable of attack and defense. The military members usually came from the elite groups in society. One of the goals of the military also included capturing captives for sacrifice.
The origins of the Mayan civilization has a been a question for many decades. Some archeologists believe that the Maya rose from being early villagers with the influence of the prior Olmec Civilization. Yet others believe that the Maya developed their civilization independently without the Olmec influence but after the Olmec had already fallen. New data suggests that the Maya created ritual platforms and communal structures as early as 1000 BCE meaning that the Maya rose earlier than previously thought.
Maya Empire (state building)
The Mayan Civilization did not have a centralized empire. They were organized into city states similar to the Greeks in Europe and the Hausa in West Africa. Each city had an emperor that was chosen by a council of nobles. That emperor had supreme authority over the surrounding areas. The emperor and nobles achieved legitimacy through the religion. They built monumental architecture such as temples to perform rituals that were believed to help the sun rise. The Maya king were believed to have the strongest blood and through blood letting of the kings, the sun kept rising and crops kept growing.
A council chosen from among the nobles helped the emperor rule. The Maya nobles and the emperor appointed governors to administer the local affairs. These administrators were of noble blood and got their successors were normally the sons of nobles. The Maya used a strict set of laws to make sure there was peace. There were no prisons but punishments included death, slavery and fines. The nobles were also subject to the law. Many Maya cities also had large well organized military capable of attack and defense. The military members usually came from the elite groups in society. One of the goals of the military also included capturing captives for sacrifice.
Farming and Trade
The Maya economy was based on agriculture. The main stable crops included maize, beans and squash. Their farming techniques included slash and burn farming, step farming and chinampas or floating gardens. There were no large domesticated animals but they did domesticate dogs. In addition to the dog, the Maya evidently raised doves, turkeys. They were able to hunt for deer and other wild animals as well. Most people were peasants whose job was to help feed the warriors and the elite.
There was some regional trade but no trans regional trade. Trade included luxury items for the elite such as gold, jade, copper, obsidian, and other raw materials. The Maya also traded subsistence goods for the commoners such as corn, beans, and squash and stone tools. The Maya used the barter system and did not have a common standardized currency. |
Culture
The Maya were the only civilization in the Americas to develop a complete system of writing known as Maya glyphs. The glyphs represented syllables that combined to form words in the Maya language. The Maya used that written language to create codices or folding books written by professional scribes. These codices recorded history, astronomical data, religion and many other aspects of Maya knowledge. Most of the codices were destroyed by Spanish Catholic priests by the 1500's. Only four survived.
The Maya were expert astronomers and mathematicians. They developed the concept of zero and used that math to calculate eclipses, create accurate calendars and document the moon phases. Knowledge of the stars influenced their religion. Priests would use the eclipses to perform ritual bloodletting and human sacrifice. The Maya believed in many gods. There are no surviving codices that include the Maya mythology but the Popol Vhu created by a Spanish Priest using Maya oral knowledge was created in the 16th century. That text shows that they believed these gods demanded both the bloodletting and human sacrifice. One of the ritual sacrifices was performed on special occasions. Maya astronomy and religion would later influence the Aztec. Maya religion was played out in a ball game. Sometimes captors from other cities were used. Two teams played using their bodies, except their hands, to put a rubber ball through a hoop on the side of a wall. Winners severed the heads of the losers and sacrificed them to the gods. The games purpose was more religious and political than just entertainment. |
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The Aztec
Objective #1 To understand the Aztec origins, state building techniques and social structure.
Aztec Origins (conquest)
The Mexica were a band of Nauahtl speaking nomads that originated from Aztlan (somewhere in the South Western US today). The were the last Nahuatl speaking group to migrate to the valley of Mexico. The Mexica were looking for a sign of an eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake. It is said that in 1325 C.E. this sign, an eagle and serpent fighting on a cactus, was seen at Lake Texcoco prompting the Mexica to found their capital city, Tenochtitlan.
Aztec Empire (state building)
The Aztec capital city, Tenochtitlan, was founded on a small piece of land in Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan was highly developed with causeways between islands for transport, aqueducts to carry fresh water and sewers to dispose of waste. The city developed into a metropolis led by a ruling leader and supported by noble classes, priests, warriors and merchants. By the early 1500s it contained an array of pyramids, temples, palaces and market places.
The Mexica were good warriors and maintained a strong military At first were only mercenaries. Their military became powerful as campaigns were fought and won. That military helped the Mexica create The Triple Alliance was created with the lords of Texcoco and Tlacopan further strengthening Aztec power.
Aztec Emperor
There were initially three emperors-one from each alliance. However, over time, the Mexica emperor became the most important. The emperor was chosen by a council from the previous emperor's family. The emperor was seen as a god on earth and derived their legitimacy from the religion. They also build monumental architecture in the form on temples. One example includes the Templo Mayor in the capital. It was important that the emperor continue the religious practices that included human sacrifice from a top these temples. If the civilization kept thriving, they kept ruling.
However, the emperor did not rule using a bureaucracy. There were local tribute collectors but the local rule fell to the already existing rulers the Aztec had conquered. Thus the most important feature of rule by the Aztec was getting tribute in the from of goods and slaves.
The Aztecs had a fairly sophisticated code of law. There were numerous laws including laws against stealing, murder, drunkenness, and property damage. A system of courts and judges determined guilt and punishments. They had different levels of courts all the way up to a supreme court. Citizens could appeal rulings to a higher court if they did not agree with the judge. One interesting part of the law was the "one time forgiveness law". Under this law, a citizen could confess a crime to a priest and they would be forgiven. This only worked if they confessed the crime prior to being caught. It also could only be used once.
The Tribute System became the tool used by the Aztec to control the population of 5 to 6 million they had conquered. They controlled their huge empire through military strength, a long-distance trading network and the tribute which conquered peoples had to pay. The Mexica went to war for two main reasons; to exact tribute and to capture prisoners. They needed prisoners because they believed that the gods must be appeased with human blood and hearts to ensure the sun rose each day. Tribute consisted of foodstuffs, building materials, rubber balls, paper, jewelry, and other luxury goods.Even with this tribute system, the empire remained loosely structured and unstable.
Fall of the Aztec
Columbus would arrive in 1492 influencing conquistadores like Cortez to follow. In 1519, Cortez and a band of 508 Spanish soldiers conquered the
Aztec allowing for the expansion of the Spanish empire into the Americas. That conquest was facilitated with the spread of diseases like small pox that would kill about 90% of the native populations in the Americas.
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Economics
The city of Tenochtitlan had many aqueducts, dikes, causeways and bridges that helped the city grow. Due to the lack of bureaucracy the Aztec did not develop a state funded road system. The roads were created by local rulers. They never developed a standardized coin either. Instead they used a system of barter or cacao beans for trade. Although many adopted Aztec language of Nahuatl, there was no official standardized language and other languages persisted. The Aztec, like most societies in both the Americas and Afro Eurasia, depended mostly on agriculture. The main staple foods for the Aztec included maize, beans and squash. There were no draft animals such as horses or oxen but they did raise turkeys, chihuahuas and xoloinsicuintles. In order to best utilize their surroundings, the Aztec adopted the use of Chinampas from the Maya. Chinampas are artificial floating gardens. Increased food meant a rising population that also resulted in increased trade. The trade happened mostly in local markets. The city of Tenochtitlan also featured a market at Tlatelolco were many goods from around the empire were traded. A professional merchant class called potchtecas developed among the Aztecs. The potchteca were considered commoners but sometimes, due to their wealth, were very respected. Many became spies for the empire. The potchetca did practice long range trade, there was never consistent trans regional trade. |
Culture
An important aspect of Aztec culture was their religious practices. They were a polytheistic people. Their beliefs were influenced by the previous civilizations like the Maya and Teotihuacanos. For example, Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent) was a god created by the Teotihuacanos, adopted by the Maya then the Aztec. Each god had a different attribute and personality. They represented different aspects of their reality such as nature and the natural world, creation stories, fertility, food, death and the underworld, trade and excess or entertainment. As such, the Aztec prayed to a different god depending on the needs of the day. Some of the more important gods included Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, and Tezcatlipoca. Another important aspect of the religion was bloodletting. Bloodletting included the use of sharp objects to draw blood from the individual and present it to the gods. The most powerful bloodletting came from the emperor and the priests. The Aztecs believed that the sun needed the blood of human sacrifice. Like other cultures around the world including other Mesoamerican cultures, hey performed many human sacrifices. Sacrifices were performed a top of temples. Most sacrifice victims came from captured warriors or tribute. It was important for the Aztec that they did not kill their enemies while in war but take them captive to sacrifice. The Aztecs also believed that the underworld and heaven were divided into many levels. Depending on how you died would determine where you went. If you died in battle, you would go directly to heaven. Similarly, if you drowned, you would go directly to the underworld. Aztec priests were responsible for keeping up with the scarifies. They were the only ones who could read and write the Nahuatl language. The Aztec language did not include a written language but they did have pictographs that represented speech. The used these pictographs and created codices on paper that was folded like an accordion that they used for record keeping. One of the most important aspects of the Aztec religion was the calendar. The Aztec calendar was another adaptation of the Mayan calendar. It consisted of a 365-day agricultural calendar, as well as a 260-day sacred calendar. The Aztec, like the Maya, were expert astronomers and kept meticulous records of the stars, solar and lunar eclipses. |
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Society
There were different social classes within Aztec society. At the very top of society was the king. The social structure was very rigid meaning it was difficult not go up or down. The basic social unit for the Aztec was the family. The family was sacred. Men could marry more than one wife. Families belonged to larger clans called calpulli. Children had compulsory education. At school, boys learned the family trade or to be warriors while the women learned crafts. Role of Women Within the home Aztec women cooked, cleaned and raised their children. They were also instrumental in the tribute system since they spun and wove cloth. Many women became traders, teachers and members of craft organizations. Elite women were officials in palaces priestesses in temples and advisers. |
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The Inca
Inca Origins
According to Inca mythology they come from four brothers and sisters created by Virachocha their creator god. They became nomads. Along the way one brother killed the others. They reached the valley of Cuzco and they settled there. The capital city was then created. In the early 1400's Pachacuti and his son organized a large army that came to control all other states in the region building the Inca empire.
According to Inca mythology they come from four brothers and sisters created by Virachocha their creator god. They became nomads. Along the way one brother killed the others. They reached the valley of Cuzco and they settled there. The capital city was then created. In the early 1400's Pachacuti and his son organized a large army that came to control all other states in the region building the Inca empire.
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Inca Empire (Sate Building)
The Inca also had an emperor with absolute rule that was considered divine because he was a direct descendant of their creator god Viracocha. The Inca did have a bureaucracy. They divided the empire into 4 provinces that each had a governor responsible for administration. They were in turn helped by local officials. Local conquered people had to learn Qechua the Inca language. Conquered people also had to pay taxes in the form of labor called the mita system. The state required individuals to work for free during a period of time instead of paying tribute like the Aztec. Due to an abundance of labor, the Inca were able to create a system of roads through the mountainous empire that enabled communication and the movement of troops as well as trade. They also created and maintained a system of suspension bridges that allowed for travel across the mountains. There was no writing but record keeping consisted of a system of knots called quipus. These quipus allowed officials to keep track of food and work done by people. The Inca kept control of their empire using a highly organized and well equipped army. |
The Inca would fall due to invasion from Europe. Spanish conquistadores arrived in 1533 looking for riches. The Spanish brought disease that would decimate the native population. It is believed that in ten years between 50% and 90% of the population was attacked by diseases like smallpox, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, chicken pox and measles, disease spread alarmingly fast as Amerindians did not have the immunity to fight off newly brought viruses. That allowed conquistadors like Pizzaro to topple the Inca and take over the empire.
Culture
The Inca believed that their ruler, the Inca Sapa, was part god. Like the Maya and Aztec, they were also polytheistic. Viracocha was the creator god of the Inca and of pre-Inca peoples. Creator of earth, humans, and animals. Other gods included Inti, the sun god, and Apu Illapu the rain god. Temples were erected to worship each of these gods. These temples also gave the ruler legitimacy and illustrated his power. The best-known Inca temple is the Sun Temple in Cuzco. Priests and chosen women lived at these temples. Human and animal sacrifice was offered on every important occasion; guinea pigs (more properly cui), llamas, certain foods, coca leaves, and chicha (an intoxicant corn beverage) were all used in sacrifices. Human sacrifice was not as extensive as the Aztec or even the Maya. 0The Inca had many technologies, including Stone Cutting, Agriculture, Astronomy, Mathematics, Medicine (including brain surgery), Hydraulics, Architecture. The Inca loved music. They invented many wind and percussion instruments. Drums and flutes were very popular.
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Society
As with the Aztec society, there were different social classes within Inca society. At the very top of society was the emperor or Sapa Inca. The social structure was more fluid meaning it was not difficult go up or down. The basic social unit for the Inca was also the family. Men could marry more than one wife but common men mostly remained with one. Role of Women Women's role was within the home since they were the ones that cooked, cleaned and raised their children and farmed along with men. They were also instrumental in the mita system since they spun and wove cloth, created ceramics and stonework. Some women became "chosen women" and were removed from their homes at an early age to serve as priestesses in the temples. |
Inca Economy
The Incas had a centrally planned economy. The Incan civilization was also predominantly an agricultural society. Theoretically, everything on earth was owned by the state. Collective labor in the form of the mita system mentioned above was the base for economic productivity. Collective farming produced the food to sustain the empire. People with special skills such as weaving or pottery making produced the goods. Resistance to work or laziness was punishable by death. In exchange for their work citizens had free clothing, food from state warehouses, health care and education. Production and distribution was done at the local level in each providence. In the event of surplus, the state would keep it and redistribute it to other providences in need. In the event that a product was not available, the Inca colonized a region that included that product. The Inca did not have a standardized currency nor a system of trade but barter did occur.
The Inca was also a mainly agricultural society. Their main staple foods included potato, quinoa, maize and beans. They also did not have draft animals or even the wheel. They did domesticate llamas and guinea pigs. They used step farming like the Song Dynasty to maximize the use of lands in the mountains. |
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