Objective
Compare the processes by which state power shifted from 1750 to 1900 in Africa.
Reading Questions
Berlin Conference
North Africa
South Africa
- What was the purpose of the Berlin Conference? Why was this diplomacy used?
- Which Western power controls this region? How do they keep control over the colony?
- What are the major resources drawn from the colony by the West? What was the economic relationship between the Western power and the people in the colony?
- What was the result of Leopold's policies in the Congo?
- Why did power shift from private control of the Congo to state control?
- Which Western power controls this region? How do they keep control over the colony?
- What happened when the traditions of the West clashed with the traditions of the Global South? Are there examples of racism, the White Man’s Burden, and/or Social Darwinism?
- Why did some choose to cooperate/adopt western ways?
North Africa
- Which Western power controls this region? How do they keep control over the colony?
- What happened when the traditions of the West clashed with the traditions of the Global South? Are there examples of racism, the White Man’s Burden, and/or Social Darwinism?
South Africa
- Which Western power controls this region? How do they keep control over the colony?
- What were the causes and consequences of the Boer Wars?
- Who was Shaka Zulu and what happened to his kingdom?
- •What happened when the traditions of the West clashed with the traditions of the Global South? Are there examples of racism, the White Man’s Burden, and/or Social Darwinism?
Africa Prior to Imperialism
In the Early Modern Period of 1450 to 1750, African people were divided into hundreds of different ethnic and linguistic groups. Many had converted to Islam while most continued traditional practices. The African continent had large empires like Mali, Songhai, and Great Zimbabwe and small villages and kingdoms. Europeans were forced to limit their trade to the coast by creating only trading posts because African nations were powerful enough to keep them out of the interior.
The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to imperialism or the seizure of a weaker countries territory by a stronger nation. Europeans wanted African territory for raw materials needed for industrial products. The need for world markets also became the motivation for Europeans to gain control of Africa.
By the mid-1800s, industrial weapons allowed Europeans to conquer the entire continent. Europeans began to control trade networks in Africa, extracting the raw materials and transporting them to Europe to manufacture products. During colonization, the relationship between Europeans and Africans would change African society, economics, and political life.
The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to imperialism or the seizure of a weaker countries territory by a stronger nation. Europeans wanted African territory for raw materials needed for industrial products. The need for world markets also became the motivation for Europeans to gain control of Africa.
By the mid-1800s, industrial weapons allowed Europeans to conquer the entire continent. Europeans began to control trade networks in Africa, extracting the raw materials and transporting them to Europe to manufacture products. During colonization, the relationship between Europeans and Africans would change African society, economics, and political life.
Imperialism in Africa
The Berlin Conference (Diplomatic meeting)
The competition for African land, called the "scramble for Africa," began in the 1880s. People discovered gold and diamonds in Africa, causing European interest in the region. Europeans, attempting to avoid conflict amongst themselves, met in Berlin in 1884-85 at The Berlin Conference. They agreed that any nation could claim any part of Africa simply by telling the others and showing that it had control of the area. They then moved quickly to grab land.
By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia were independent of European rule. No African rulers attended the conference. One of the biggest beneficiaries of the Scramble for Africa was King Leopold of Belgium.
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The competition for African land, called the "scramble for Africa," began in the 1880s. People discovered gold and diamonds in Africa, causing European interest in the region. Europeans, attempting to avoid conflict amongst themselves, met in Berlin in 1884-85 at The Berlin Conference. They agreed that any nation could claim any part of Africa simply by telling the others and showing that it had control of the area. They then moved quickly to grab land.
By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia were independent of European rule. No African rulers attended the conference. One of the biggest beneficiaries of the Scramble for Africa was King Leopold of Belgium.
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Belgians and the Congo
Gaining Control
In the late 1860s, David Livingstone, a missionary, traveled with Africans deep into central Africa to promote Christianity. Many feared he was dead when several years passed with no word from him or his party. The New York Herald, An American newspaper, hired reporter Henry Stanley to find Livingstone. Stanley found Dr. Livingstone on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. King Leopold II of Belgium had already gotten the Congo during the Berlin Conference. King Leopold hired Stanley to help him obtain land in the Congo. Stanley signed treaties with local chiefs of the Congo that gave King Leopold II of Belgium control of the region. Leopold claimed that his motive for establishing the colony was humanitarian.
A Shift from Private Ownership to State Control
Leopold got rights to the Congo territory at the Berlin Conference in 1885 and made the land his private property. Leopold became the Sovereign King as ruler of the Congo Free State. Leopold's used his private army, The Force Publique (FP), to enforce the collection of rubber quotas. At first, they forced the locals to bring in ivory then rubber. The Belgians had Congolese kings "sign" contracts in a different language to gain control over land. The Congolese lived and worked under horrible conditions.
Armed with modern weapons and the chicotte—a bullwhip made of hippopotamus hide—the Force Publique tortured hostages, slaughtered families of people who rebelled, and flogged and raped Congolese people. They also burned uncooperative villages, and above all mutilated people, cut off the hands of Congolese natives, including children. From 1885–to 1908, 4 to 11 million Congolese died due to exploitation.(famine, disease harsh labor or murdered) and millions more mutilated.
Many rebellions erupted but couldn’t defeat Belgians. The Belgian military stepped up murdering and mutilation. In 1908, because of international pressure, the parliament of Belgium took over the Congo Free State on November 15, 1908, and turned it into a colony of Belgium.
Leopold got rights to the Congo territory at the Berlin Conference in 1885 and made the land his private property. Leopold became the Sovereign King as ruler of the Congo Free State. Leopold's used his private army, The Force Publique (FP), to enforce the collection of rubber quotas. At first, they forced the locals to bring in ivory then rubber. The Belgians had Congolese kings "sign" contracts in a different language to gain control over land. The Congolese lived and worked under horrible conditions.
Armed with modern weapons and the chicotte—a bullwhip made of hippopotamus hide—the Force Publique tortured hostages, slaughtered families of people who rebelled, and flogged and raped Congolese people. They also burned uncooperative villages, and above all mutilated people, cut off the hands of Congolese natives, including children. From 1885–to 1908, 4 to 11 million Congolese died due to exploitation.(famine, disease harsh labor or murdered) and millions more mutilated.
Many rebellions erupted but couldn’t defeat Belgians. The Belgian military stepped up murdering and mutilation. In 1908, because of international pressure, the parliament of Belgium took over the Congo Free State on November 15, 1908, and turned it into a colony of Belgium.
British in West Africa
Gaining Control
Britain gained control of Nigeria through both diplomacy and warfare. One example of warfare was the Asante Wars that began in 1805. Although the Asante were outgunned, they managed to keep the British at bay for close to 100 years. Below is a quote from King Prempeh I who refused to sign a treaty giving control to the British in 1891.
"The suggestion that Asante in its present state should come and enjoy the protection of Her Majesty the Queen and Empress of India, is a matter of very serious consideration and I am happy to say we have arrived at this conclusion, that my kingdom of Asante will never commit itself to any such policy. Asante must remain [independent] of old"
By 1897 King Prempeh was exiled and the Asante lost their land. Others, not just the Asante also opposed the foreign intervention and rebelled against it. The British used force to put down and defeat these rebellions. Some local rulers decided diplomacy was necessary and agreed to sign protection treaties with Britain and accepted British residents. By 1888 many had signed treaties with The Royal Niger Company who finally accomplished the British conquest of northern Nigeria. The company gained control of the palm-oil trade along the Niger River and made a protectorate over the Niger River delta. In 1914, the British claimed the entire area of Nigeria as a colony.
Ruling with Indirect Control
Because of their small numbers, most European colonizers resorted to indirect rule, relying on governments already there but exerting control over their leaders.
About 250 different ethnic groups lived there. Three of the largest groups were the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Igbo in the southeast. These groups were different in many ways, including language, culture, and religion. As a result, the British turned to indirect rule of the land. Ruling indirectly meant ruling through local officials. Indirect rule worked well with the Hausa-Fulani. However, this management method did not work well with everyone. We will review the rebellions in another lesson. For a time, Frederick Lugard, who was Britain's head honcho in Nigeria, called this "rule through and by the natives."
For the most part, Europeans could almost always rely on their superior military technology to coerce local rulers into doing what the Europeans wanted. And they could replace native officials with Europeans if they had to. But in general, they preferred to rule indirectly. It was easier and cheaper.
Gaining Control
Britain gained control of Nigeria through both diplomacy and warfare. One example of warfare was the Asante Wars that began in 1805. Although the Asante were outgunned, they managed to keep the British at bay for close to 100 years. Below is a quote from King Prempeh I who refused to sign a treaty giving control to the British in 1891.
"The suggestion that Asante in its present state should come and enjoy the protection of Her Majesty the Queen and Empress of India, is a matter of very serious consideration and I am happy to say we have arrived at this conclusion, that my kingdom of Asante will never commit itself to any such policy. Asante must remain [independent] of old"
By 1897 King Prempeh was exiled and the Asante lost their land. Others, not just the Asante also opposed the foreign intervention and rebelled against it. The British used force to put down and defeat these rebellions. Some local rulers decided diplomacy was necessary and agreed to sign protection treaties with Britain and accepted British residents. By 1888 many had signed treaties with The Royal Niger Company who finally accomplished the British conquest of northern Nigeria. The company gained control of the palm-oil trade along the Niger River and made a protectorate over the Niger River delta. In 1914, the British claimed the entire area of Nigeria as a colony.
Ruling with Indirect Control
Because of their small numbers, most European colonizers resorted to indirect rule, relying on governments already there but exerting control over their leaders.
About 250 different ethnic groups lived there. Three of the largest groups were the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Igbo in the southeast. These groups were different in many ways, including language, culture, and religion. As a result, the British turned to indirect rule of the land. Ruling indirectly meant ruling through local officials. Indirect rule worked well with the Hausa-Fulani. However, this management method did not work well with everyone. We will review the rebellions in another lesson. For a time, Frederick Lugard, who was Britain's head honcho in Nigeria, called this "rule through and by the natives."
For the most part, Europeans could almost always rely on their superior military technology to coerce local rulers into doing what the Europeans wanted. And they could replace native officials with Europeans if they had to. But in general, they preferred to rule indirectly. It was easier and cheaper.
Cooperation or Rebellion
Why did these local rulers collaborate? First of all, they were still rulers. They got to keep their prestige, status, and power to some extent. Many were also able to gain advantages through their service, like access to European education for themselves and their children. Many found employment, status, and job security in the European armed forces.
Western education became available to those that chose to cooperate. Others, who were not initially rulers, also found it beneficial to cooperate. A small Western-educated class of locals emerged in the colonies. They became the teachers, clerks, translators, and lower-level bureaucrats. Some managed to go abroad, get an education and come back as lawyers, doctors, and engineers. Europeans began to depend on this Western-educated class more than the traditional rulers.
It was also practical to cooperate. The alternative was to resist, which usually didn't work out well. Hilaire Belloc summed things up best in 1898's The Modern Traveler when he wrote: 'Whatever happens, we have got, the Maxim gun, and they have not.'
Why did these local rulers collaborate? First of all, they were still rulers. They got to keep their prestige, status, and power to some extent. Many were also able to gain advantages through their service, like access to European education for themselves and their children. Many found employment, status, and job security in the European armed forces.
Western education became available to those that chose to cooperate. Others, who were not initially rulers, also found it beneficial to cooperate. A small Western-educated class of locals emerged in the colonies. They became the teachers, clerks, translators, and lower-level bureaucrats. Some managed to go abroad, get an education and come back as lawyers, doctors, and engineers. Europeans began to depend on this Western-educated class more than the traditional rulers.
It was also practical to cooperate. The alternative was to resist, which usually didn't work out well. Hilaire Belloc summed things up best in 1898's The Modern Traveler when he wrote: 'Whatever happens, we have got, the Maxim gun, and they have not.'
The French in Senegal Africa
Gaining Control
Although the French had established trade ports on the West African coast as early as 1659 at St. Louis (present-day Senegal), their participation in West Africa did not increase substantially until later in the nineteenth century. First, the French started establishing a series of inland forts up the Senegal River. By 1860, the French-controlled most of the Senegal regions through war. The French initially built forts sending troops out to put down anyone who resisted. Eventually they constructed railroads and telegraph lines giving them a solid stronghold in the region.
Although the French had established trade ports on the West African coast as early as 1659 at St. Louis (present-day Senegal), their participation in West Africa did not increase substantially until later in the nineteenth century. First, the French started establishing a series of inland forts up the Senegal River. By 1860, the French-controlled most of the Senegal regions through war. The French initially built forts sending troops out to put down anyone who resisted. Eventually they constructed railroads and telegraph lines giving them a solid stronghold in the region.
Direct Control
The French and other European powers preferred more direct control of their colonies. They viewed the Africans as unable to handle running a country. Based on this attitude, the Europeans developed the policy of paternalism or governing people like a parent. Europeans believed in providing for African's needs but not giving them rights. Europeans brought in their own bureaucrats and did not train local people in European governing techniques. The French also supported a policy called assimilation. That policy was based on the idea that the local populations would adopt French culture and become like the French. All local schools, courts, and businesses were similar to French institutions. In time, the French abandoned the idea of assimilation in most colonies but kept it in a few places. Europeans did recognize African institutions and culture but regarded them as inferior to French culture. |
Consequences of French Imperialism
The French, and other Imperial powers, required unpaid labor to construct public projects such as roads, schools, and railroads. For example, in French West Africa, people were also required to work for 12 days out of the year free. This practice lasted until 1946.
The French also transformed their colonies' economy to focus primarily on the production and extraction of raw materials and the continuing cultivation of cash crops like tea, sugar, cotton, and rubber. They also brutally forced the locals to work through coerced labor. But most colonies had colonized work for low wages that profited European capitalists and the imperial governments. Capitalism led to poverty in the territories that is evident today. |
South Africa
Gaining Control & Settler Colonies
The first European to arrive in South Africa were the Dutch in 1651 to establish a station for those going to the Dutch East Indies in South East Asia during the spice trade. Many Dutch began to establish settler colonies similar to the 13 colonies the British established in North America in 1605. These Dutch colonies called themselves Boers or Afrikaners. In the 1830 the British took control of the area so many Boers moved north. This caused conflict with the native Zulu. Then diamonds were discovered there as well. This led to a large influx of British colonists. Fearing loss of political control and independence, the Boers rebelled against the British in 1881. The rebellion was called the Boer Wars. The British won in 1910. On May 31, 1910, four colonies of Dutch and British colonist were joined together to create the Union of South Africa, a self-governing Dominion in the British Empire. The new nation was a sovereign state when it came to its domestic affairs, but the British empire maintained control over its relations with the wider world. South Africa would come into conflict with native Africans especially the Zulu. Once in control of the region
The first European to arrive in South Africa were the Dutch in 1651 to establish a station for those going to the Dutch East Indies in South East Asia during the spice trade. Many Dutch began to establish settler colonies similar to the 13 colonies the British established in North America in 1605. These Dutch colonies called themselves Boers or Afrikaners. In the 1830 the British took control of the area so many Boers moved north. This caused conflict with the native Zulu. Then diamonds were discovered there as well. This led to a large influx of British colonists. Fearing loss of political control and independence, the Boers rebelled against the British in 1881. The rebellion was called the Boer Wars. The British won in 1910. On May 31, 1910, four colonies of Dutch and British colonist were joined together to create the Union of South Africa, a self-governing Dominion in the British Empire. The new nation was a sovereign state when it came to its domestic affairs, but the British empire maintained control over its relations with the wider world. South Africa would come into conflict with native Africans especially the Zulu. Once in control of the region
Zulu Resistance
The First Zulu King, Shaka Zulu established the Kingdom in 1825. The Zulu became and independent state for for the next 25 years. Shaka Zulu kept control of the region using a highly disciplined army. Shaka managed to keep Europeans out as well. Shaka was assassinated in 1828 and his successors could not keep control. By the 1830s migrating Boers came into conflict with the Zulu Kingdom. A series of wars broke out between the Zulu and the Boers. But by 1842, the Boers and Zulu managed to maintain peace.
After the diamond discoveries he British decided to take control of the Zulu land. In 1879 the Zulu refused to give up their independence stating the Zulu Wars against the British. The Zulu fought bravely but lost because the British were using industrialized weapons while the Zulu were using spears and shields.
Consequences of Dutch and British Imperialism
Europeans both Dutch and British began to create an economy based on cheap Black African Labor in the mines and factories. This led to low wage difficult jobs and poverty among black Africans while leading to prosperity for White Africans. Because the economy brought the races closer together, Whites decided to limit social and political interactions. They created separate "homelands" for the Blacks leading to separate residential areas, public facilities and schools. This sperate system would eventually be known as apartheid in South Africa.
The First Zulu King, Shaka Zulu established the Kingdom in 1825. The Zulu became and independent state for for the next 25 years. Shaka Zulu kept control of the region using a highly disciplined army. Shaka managed to keep Europeans out as well. Shaka was assassinated in 1828 and his successors could not keep control. By the 1830s migrating Boers came into conflict with the Zulu Kingdom. A series of wars broke out between the Zulu and the Boers. But by 1842, the Boers and Zulu managed to maintain peace.
After the diamond discoveries he British decided to take control of the Zulu land. In 1879 the Zulu refused to give up their independence stating the Zulu Wars against the British. The Zulu fought bravely but lost because the British were using industrialized weapons while the Zulu were using spears and shields.
Consequences of Dutch and British Imperialism
Europeans both Dutch and British began to create an economy based on cheap Black African Labor in the mines and factories. This led to low wage difficult jobs and poverty among black Africans while leading to prosperity for White Africans. Because the economy brought the races closer together, Whites decided to limit social and political interactions. They created separate "homelands" for the Blacks leading to separate residential areas, public facilities and schools. This sperate system would eventually be known as apartheid in South Africa.