Knowledge of the Monsoons
What made Indian Ocean trade possible were the monsoons, alternating wind currents that blew predictably towards India during the summer months and to East Africa during the winter. An understanding of monsoons and the development of maritime technology and navigation by Chinese, Malay, Indian, Arab, and Swahili mariners collectively made "an interlocked human world joined by the common highway of the Indian Ocean."
But this world of Indian Ocean trade did not occur between entire regions and certainly not between "empires" even though historians sometimes write about India, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, East Africa, China, and Arabia as the major players in trade. Trade operated rather across chain of towns and ports whose merchants often had more in common with one another than with the people of their own homeland. These urban centers string out around the entire Indian Ocean, provided the markets and ports necessary to draw maritime merchants to journey through ocean waters and monsoon winds. See the map at the top of this page for a better understanding how the Indian Ocean "world" is more like a collection of large, urban cities.
But this world of Indian Ocean trade did not occur between entire regions and certainly not between "empires" even though historians sometimes write about India, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, East Africa, China, and Arabia as the major players in trade. Trade operated rather across chain of towns and ports whose merchants often had more in common with one another than with the people of their own homeland. These urban centers string out around the entire Indian Ocean, provided the markets and ports necessary to draw maritime merchants to journey through ocean waters and monsoon winds. See the map at the top of this page for a better understanding how the Indian Ocean "world" is more like a collection of large, urban cities.
The Dhow and Maritime Technology
As sailors recognized the rhythms of the monsoons, they began to build larger ships, which enabled them to navigate the Indian Ocean waters. The dhows were favored by Indian, African, and Muslim merchants. One dhow could carry between 200,000 to 800,000 lbs. of bulk goods. They were equipped with the lateen sail, a triangular sail invented by Arab sailors, capable of sailing against the monsoon winds. Equipped with the Chinese rudder (which steers the ship from the back), merchants were able to sail into the Indian Ocean regardless of which direction the monsoon winds were blowing.
Most dhows were also equipped with other Arab and Chinese inventions to help with navigation. Most had the Chinese "south-pointing needle" or a compass to help sailors know which direction they were sailing. Sailors could also have astrolabe or cartography maps, both of which were developed by Muslim and Arab scholars in the Abbasid Caliphate. Navigation made it possible for merchants to sail from port to port, increasing trade significantly.
Most dhows were also equipped with other Arab and Chinese inventions to help with navigation. Most had the Chinese "south-pointing needle" or a compass to help sailors know which direction they were sailing. Sailors could also have astrolabe or cartography maps, both of which were developed by Muslim and Arab scholars in the Abbasid Caliphate. Navigation made it possible for merchants to sail from port to port, increasing trade significantly.
Specialized Economies
Societies focused their production of goods based on natural resources in their local environment. Every region had something that they only grew or produced.
COTTON TEXTILES AND SPICE MARKETS: THE HEART OF THE INDIAN OCEAN
India and Southeast Asia were the main producers of fine spices during the Foundations Period. India was known for growing black pepper while Southeast Asia produced nutmeg, clove, and cinnamon. These rare and expensive spices were only produced in these places in the world due to their tropical climates. Spices were extremely important luxury good in ancient times because they had many more uses than they do in the modern world. They served not only as condiments and flavoring agents in cooking, but also as drugs, aphrodisiacs, perfumes, and magical potions.
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The Indian Ocean trade network was known for the selling of bulk goods. Since they had maritime (or sea-based) technology, merchants were able to transport larger quantities of goods like cotton and spices. The oldest and arguably most influential Indian innovation was the domestication of cotton and the production of cotton textiles for export. Cotton was first domesticated in the Indus River Valley some time between 2300 and 1760 BCE. Even during this early period, Indus River Valley merchants are known to have lived in Mesopotamia, where they sold cotton textiles. By the Classical period, Indian cotton textiles permeated the Silk Road trade networks and could be found in every major classical city. The diffusion of Indian cotton textiles grew so extensively that one textile expert claims that “India clothed the world.”
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SPICES : THE HEART OF TRADE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Modern day Malaysia and Malacca were called the Spice Islands. The islands are made up of an Indonesian archipelago that comprises a total land mass of 75,000 square kilometers. The Islands have been inhabited for tens of thousands of years. Australasians arrived around 1000 BCE. Spice trade was encouraged by the native people for a very long time before the first Europeans set foot on the islands. In the 16th century they were nicknamed the "Spice Islands". This was due to the large number of aromatic plants that grew on this archipelago.
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Subsequently, the islands were an important strategic base for the highly profitable spice trade. Nutmeg and cloves largely drove the spice trade. These two widely-used spices were originally only native to this group of islands. Since spices were once worth their weight in gold, control of the Moluccas was synonymous with extreme wealth.
The fight to take control of this "spice monopoly" flared up between Europeans in the period of 1450 to 1750 driven by the Portuguese |
But this world of Indian Ocean trade did not occur between entire "empires" even though historians sometimes write about India, Indonesia, Malaysia, East Africa, China, and Arabia as the major players in trade. Trade operated across chains of cities and ports whose merchants often had more in common with other merchants than with the people living in their own homeland. These urban centers string out around the entire Indian Ocean, provided the markets and ports necessary to draw maritime merchants to journey through ocean waters and monsoon winds. See the map above for a better understanding how the Indian Ocean "world" is more like a large collection of urban trade cities.
Weaving a Web of Religions
Although the Indian Ocean trade network had already existed as early as 200 BCE, the expansion of Islam connected more cities than ever before becoming the main reason for the expansion of transregional trade. Trading partners existed in the Swahili Coast (East Africa), Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and even China. Muslims and Arabs were the dominant mariners and were instrumental in the transporting goods to port cities across the Indian Ocean. They were able to use instruments like the astrolabe, compass, new ships and rudders to successfully trade in this region. Cities on the west coast of India like Calicut became thriving centers of trade due to interactions with merchants from East Africa and the Middle East.
Compared to the Silk Routes and the Trans-Saharan Exchange Networks, the Indian Ocean connected more regions and more diverse groups of people into one integrated "world." No surprise, that meant more cultural diffusion occurred with multiple religions in multiple regions. From India, Hinduism and Buddhism diffused into Southeast Asia. Hinduism diffused into parts of Thailand and Malaysia, however the caste system pretty much stayed in just India. Buddhism was much more practiced in Southeast Asia. The largest Buddhist temple (and largest religious site in the world), is Angkor Wat. Located in present-day Cambodia, this temple was originally built as a Hindu temple until the diffusion of Buddhism caused the locals to change it to a Buddhist temple. However, Hindu influences are seen throughout the temple. |
Diasporic Communities and Slavery
Diasporic Communities
Some Muslim merchants who traveled to distant lands permanently stayed in the port cities married women they met there, and started families. Merchants from Dar-al-Islam were the first to bring Islam to other parts of Asia, not through missionary work or conquest, but through intermarriage. Their children would generally be raised within Muslim traditions. Settlements of people away from their homelands are known as diaspora. In these communities, settlers introduce their own cultural traditions into the local culture. Those cultures, in turn, influenced the culture of the merchants, leading to syncretism The beginnings of African slavery Biological diffusion includes the migration of people into new regions. While some migration is done by choice like the Muslim merchants creating a diasporic communities, Africans were forcefully transports throughout the Indian Ocean as part of the Arab slave trade. The idea of "people owning people" or slavery began as a consequence of the Agricultural Revolution. Almost every culture on the Earth has practiced slavery in some form but never was it applied to a specific "race," let alone the African or "black race." But before the Atlantic Slave trade forcefully transported 10-20 million Africans to the Americas, there had been a long-running slave trade in the eastern part of the African continent, facing the Indian Ocean. African slaves were captured and sold to buyers in the Middle East and India. Slaves in the Indian Ocean trade were likely to provide coerced (or forced) labor in seaports in the shipping industry, and as sailors, soldiers, or household servants. Slaves who ended up in Islamic communities had certain rights, such as the right to marry. As a result of the Indian Ocean slave trade, the African Diaspora emerged as Africans were forcefully taken from their homeland to live in foreign lands. This also led to the diffusion of African words, musical styles, and customs into Arabia, India, and elsewhere. |
Diffusion of Crops
Due to the increased movement of merchants and missionaries on trade routes, societies across Afro-Eurasia experience biological diffusion. In history, biology is divided into four main groups: humans, animals, plants, and diseases. Diffusion of crops can be very impactful on the population.
Champa rice was drought resistant and fast ripening. As this rice spread through Asia, it led to population growth and increased urbanization.
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Bananas originate in Southeast Asia. Indonesian sailors took bananas to Africa. These high calorie foods also led to a population growth. . By the 1200s, the banana had reached into North Africa and in Moorish-controlled Spain. It is also likely that Islamists carried the banana from eastern to western Africa.
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Oranges also originated in Southeast Asia and were taken to the Arabian Peninsula and Muslim Spain by Arab merchants. These heat tolerant foods doubles agricultural production and also led to population growth.
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