Central Asian Nomads
The Silk Routes was a series of trade routes connecting China in the East with the Mediterranean in the West. It was officially opened by the Han dynasty around 100 CE when they first began trading with the West. Roman elite bought Chinese silk and other luxury goods. The fall of the Han empire around 200 CE and the fall of the Roman Empire led to a fall in trade along the Silk Routes. However, thanks to imperial expansion by Abbassid empire in the middle east and the Tang and Song in China, an agricultural surpus and technological innovations, a long period of peace allowed for increased trade along the routes. In Europe the Byzantine empire's capital of Constantinople also became important to trade. Geographically it was located in between Europe and the Middle East giving it an advantage to control incoming trade from Africa,
The most important empire that facilitated increased transregional trade was the Mongol Empire. They were able to conquer a weakening Abbasid empire and Song Dynasty. The Mongols brought Pax Mongolica or Mongol peace that facilitated increased trade. The Mongols respected merchants, punished bandits and imporved roads, all of which led to increased trade.
The most important empire that facilitated increased transregional trade was the Mongol Empire. They were able to conquer a weakening Abbasid empire and Song Dynasty. The Mongols brought Pax Mongolica or Mongol peace that facilitated increased trade. The Mongols respected merchants, punished bandits and imporved roads, all of which led to increased trade.
Traveling Through the Silk Roads
Another couple of things that facilitated increased trade along the Silk Roads were first innovations and second new forms of credit and banking practices.
To move the silk merchants must travel through Central Asia and the Middle East in order to reach either destination. Keep in mind, one merchant did not go from Rome straight to China or vice versa. Instead, merchants moved luxury goods in-between cities, selling the goods to another merchant who would travel further and sell them to other merchants along the Silk Routes. This type of exchange was known as relay trade. Getting through Central Asia is not the easiest. If starting from the Mediterranean Sea, merchants traveled through or around several deserts. Merchants were fortunate to come across a caravanserai, which are inns for travelers would rest and recover from the day's journey. As the Silk Routes became more popular, caravanserai were built often 100 miles apart, which is the distance a camel can travel before needing water. At the caravanserai, travelers could rest both themselves and their animals, and sometimes trade their animals for fresh ones. Further east are the Central Asian Steppes that ultimately lead to China. Steppes are large unforested grasslands that are relatively flat. Safe travel across steppe lands might be possible in almost any direction, providing one did not lose one's way and providing one had the protection of the nomads through whose lands one might pass. Central Asian nomads from the steppes visited caravansaries regularly to trade their horses or Chinese goods for the luxury goods carried from the Mediterranean, Africa, or India. Merchants were protected by these nomads as they traveled the Silk Routes, or were lucky to buy a horse from them. Horseback riding was the fastest way to travel on land thanks to the innovation of stirrups. Stirrups are a light frame or ring attached to the saddle that holds the foot of a rider. Stirrups greatly increase the rider's ability to stay in the saddle and control the mount, increasing the animal's usefulness to humans in areas such as communication, transportation and warfare. |
Putting the Silk in Silk Routes
Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes. Demand for luxury goods increased in Afro-Eurasia. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; manufacture of silk, porcelain, iron and steel expanded in China.
China was known for its production of luxury goods, which are goods that are very expensive to purchase. In addition to porcelain, silk was the main luxury goods exported from China. Light, translucent silk fabric was woven with very long threads, each one harvested by carefully unraveling the single thread that makes up an entire silkworm cocoon. Although the silk trade itself was largely in the hands of men, Chinese women mastered the skill of reeling up the single thread while the cocoon floats in boiling water. Silk was dyed with bright colors and embroidered with artistic designs. To make these designs, silk weavers had to repeatedly change the threading on the loom. The majority of the silk textiles that were exported from China were not the high quality silks, but rather a lower quality, thinner silk fabric that featured no designs. Silk textiles from China traveled to markets of Central Asia, India, Africa, and eventually to the Mediterranean, often worn by elite families as a symbol of their high social status.
Porcelain
Porcelain is a type of pottery first developed in China. Porcelain is made of a special type of clay that once glazed is lighter and more durable than any other type of pottery. This coupled with the fact that Chinese artisans beautifully painted it with vibrant blue imagery, meant that porcelain could easily make the trip across the silk roads and Indian Ocean. By 1300 CE, porcelain could be found in the homes of elites as far a way as the Mediterranean and Africa.
Steel: The production of steel especially by peasants expanded allowing for protoindustrialization. This refers to the regional growth of market. |
Commercial Innovations lead to and were a result of increased trade
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As the volume and profitability of long-distance trade in Eurasia continued to grow, merchants and governments sought ways to facilitate the increased commerce. China had long been a money economy-using coin rather than bartering with such commodities as cowrie shells or salt. However, the copper coins they used became to unwieldy to transport for everyday transactions, so the government developed a system of credit known as flying cash. Paper currency was introduced in the eleventh century to allow merchants to carry money more easily and thereby encourage greater commercial activity. Flying cash allowed a merchant to deposit paper money under his name in one location and withdraw the same amount at another location. Locations for exchanging flying cash became the model for the banks of the modern era, including the banking houses established in European cities in the 1300's. Banks gave merchants greater access to credit . At a banking house, a person could present a bill of exchange - a document stating the holder was legally promised payment of a set amount on a set date- and receive that amount of money in exchange.
The inland routes of the Silk Roads were dotted with caravanserai, large guest houses or hostels designed to welcome travelling merchants and their caravans as they made their way along these trade routes. Found across Silk Roads countries from Turkey to China, they provided not only a regular opportunity for merchants to eat well, rest and prepare themselves in safety for their onward journey, and also to exchange goods, trade with to local markets, and to meet other merchant travelers, and in doing so, to exchange cultures, languages and ideas. As such, caravanserai were far more than simply watering holes along the Silk Roads; they developed as crucibles for the cross-fertilization of cultures along the length of these routes. Not only did they facilitate the movement of people and goods along these long and arduous routes, they also provided opportunities for these travelers to come together, to share stories and experiences, and ultimately, cultures, ideas and beliefs too. Each of these innovations encouraged and supported trade by providing convenience and the stability of institutions. |
Diffusion of Buddhism
INSIDE THE DUNHUANG BUDDHIST TEMPLE
One of the biggest consequences to the expansion of the trade networks was the diffusion of religions like Buddhism Christianity and Islam.
Buddhism first established a presence in the oasis cities along the Silk Routes, where merchants and their caravans found food, rest, lodging, and markets. The oasis towns depended heavily on trade for their prosperity, and they allowed merchants to build monasteries and invite Buddhist monks into their communities. As early as the second century BCE, many residents of oasis towns adopted Buddhism, which was the most prominent religion of merchants on the Silk Routes. Thanks to the caravanserai in Central Asia, Buddhist monks traveled to China, spreading the religion as they went. The earliest Buddhists in China were merchants who practiced their religion in small Buddhist communities that government officials allowed them to live in Kaifeng and other major cities. For several centuries, Buddhism appealed very strongly to the lower classes of the Chinese population but rarely the upper classes since they benefited more from Confucianism. To answer the question about stirrups, reread the paragraph about Central Asian Nomads in the Green section. |
Diffusion of Christianity
Christianity originated in the Middle East during the Roman Republic. Early Christianity spread with the apostle Paul but really began to spread due to Emperor Constantine's adoption of Christianity. From there other religious missionaries traveled on trade routes in hopes of finding new converts. Christianity diffused throughout the Mediterranean Sea for hundreds of years due to missionaries. Whenever a culture spreads to a new region, it often experiences syncretism. Syncretism is the blending of cultures, creating new traditions or ideas. As Christianity spread to new parts of the Mediterranean, the religion combined with the local cultures of Europe and Africa. Below are three examples of syncretism with Christianity and Mediterranean cultures.
Christianity spread to the Greek islands and influenced how Jesus is portrayed. In the image to the right, Jesus' depiction is similar to that of the Greek Sun God, Helios. Notice the circular image around Jesus' head. This is called the solar disc, which Helios had around his head. The solar disc was used by Christians to identify divine figures like Jesus, or even significant followers in Christianity. Later, the solar disc would influence the Christian "halo," which is also used to identify holy beings.
Jesus is also depicted without a beard. This is because Greeks believed having beard was "barbaric" while being clean-shaven was a sign of being "civilized." |
Christianity spread to northern Europe, where "barbaric" Germanic tribes adopted Christianity. No surprise that these depiction reflected the appearance of Germanic men. Notice now Jesus has a beard since the Germanic men typically grew beards. The depictions of Jesus with a beard continues to this day. Also, Jesus is depicted with a more pale skin color. Historians argue that as Christianity diffused in the Mediterranean, Jesus became more and more "white," despite the fact he was born in the Middle East.
Notice how the solar disc around Jesus' head continues to be used to identify Jesus as a divine figure. |
Christianity also spread to East Africa via the Red Sea, into a region known as Ethiopia. Historians refer to this branch of the Christian religion as Ethiopian Orthodox. As Christianity diffused into Ethiopia, images of Jesus began to reflect the image of East Africans. Jesus is depicted with a darker skin tone similar to that of Africans. The artist of the painting above portrays Jesus and his mother, Mary, wearing traditional African clothes, hairstyles, and a darker skin tone.
Notice the solar disc around Jesus and the Virgin Mary's heads to identify them both as holy beings in the Christian religion. |
Travelers Tales
The diffusion of paper making and printing allowed for more books to be printed. A number of travelers began to write down their experiences along the trade networks. The most Famous is probably Marco Polo. However, there are also interesting writings from Margery Kempe and Ibn Battuta. Click on the videos below to learn about each person.
Margery Kempe |
Ibn Battuta |
Marco Polo |
HUMAN INTERACTION IS CONTAGIOUS ....LITERALLY!
Pax Sinica did not last in China due the diffusion of epidemic diseases, which came to China along the early Silk Roads with the movements of traders and missionaries. Smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague were the most destructive of these diseases, causing the population of China during the Han Dynasty to drop 25%. The most well known dissemination of disease was associated with the Mongol Empire in th1 1300's, which briefly unified much of Eurasia and expanded the Silk Routes to new areas. That era of intensified facilitated the spread of the Black Death from China to Europe, causing millions to perish to all areas controlled and united by the Mongols. No surprise, the Mongol Empire fell shortly after the spread of the Black Death. The Plague reached Europe via Sicilian ports in the late 1340s. The plague killed an estimated 25 million people, almost a third of the European population.