State building in South Asia
In 1.2, you learned that Muslims invaded northern India in 712 CE, and they established the Delhi Sultanate. These invasions brought continual conflict in the north part of South Asia. However, South Asia's Central and Southern parts included several empires like the Chola Kingdoms, Vijayanagar Empire, Rajput Kingdoms, and Sinhala empires that were never one unified empire. Still, they had more stability than the north. That stability came in the form of the Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms.
India would not be unified as a country until the British colonized it, and then they gained their independence at the end of WWII in 1947.
India would not be unified as a country until the British colonized it, and then they gained their independence at the end of WWII in 1947.
Southern IndiaVijayanagar Empire |
Northern IndiaRajput kingdoms |
"The Vijayanagara empire served a high historical purpose by acting as a champion of Hindu religion and culture against the aggressions of the Muslims in Southern India."
Dr. A.L. Srivastva, on the importance of the Vijayanagara empire The Vidyanagar (1336-1646). This empire is a Hindu kingdom established in 1336 by the two brothers Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I. They had converted to Islam and were sent to the southern part of the continent to take control on behalf of the Delhi Sultanate. Instead, they returned to their original religious beliefs, rebelled, and established their own Hindu Kingdom. It lasted until 1646. Vijaynagar is the largest and most powerful of the southern kingdoms. The Vijayanagar rulers were known for building many Hindu temples trying to keep their Hindu traditions and legitimize their rule. Many refugees from the north came to the city of Vijayanagar. They were not only tolerant of many different types of Hinduism. They were tolerant of all religions. They were able to continue to rule due to decentralized governing techniques. Instead of keeping all power in the capital, the rulers organized their empire into provinces. A province was then ruled by a governor, usually a military commander. The governors had almost full authority. It appears that the city was vibrant. The Vijayanagar empire was an important center of Hindu. This wealth was possible due to transregional exchange in the Indian Ocean Trade. The rulers made special arrangements to provide trading facilities at the port. The exports were cloth, rice, iron, salt, pepper, sugar, and spices. The most profitable industries of the Vijayanagara empire were cotton cloth, perfumes, and utensils of various kinds. Chola EmpireThe Chola ruled as a Hindu kingdom from 850 to 1267. They took much of their wealth from controlling the Indian Ocean trade, as seen in the map on the left. The Chola rulers used several administrative techniques. Like other states during this period, the Chola emperor was the ultimate authority and made all significant decisions about governance. The empire was split into provinces ruled by governors who had considerable local authority. The Chola rulers invested in constructing several Hindu temples and complexes with sculptures and paintings. They would also use Hinduism, the caste system, and religion to legitimize their place in society and justify their rule.
Art, religion, and literature benefited greatly from the stability during this period. Several Shiva temples were built across the banks of the Kaveri river. One of the most influential consequences of both Chola and Vijayanagar rule is that they were able to maintain Hindu practices and keep Muslim cultural norms from taking over India. |
Rajput kingdomsThe Rajput race is the noblest and proudest in India, they are of highest antiquity and purest descent, they have a military autocracy of a feudal type, and "brave and chivalrous, keenly sensitive to an affront, and especially jealous of the honour of their women".
Lt.Col. James Tod in Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan A Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, "son of a king"), was any of about 12 million landowners located mainly in central and northern South Asia. These kingdoms were also instrumental in maintaining Hindu cultural traditions while assimilating some Muslim practices. The Rajputs in the north, like the Vijayanagara to the South, became the main obstacle to Muslim domination in the north of South Asia. The Rajputs maintained their independence through the Mughal Empire as well and kept some autonomy as the British took over South Asia, but they remained decentralized. Rajput kingdoms' origins date back to the end of the Gupte empire in the middle of the 6th century. The Rajputs regard themselves as descendants of and part of the warrior clan in the Hindu caste system. While many Rajputs are Hindu, others are Muslim or Sikh. Rajput rulers exhibited religious toleration to a greater or lesser extent. Rajputs generally secluded their women and were seen in older times to practice female infanticide and sati (widow immolation). They are usually not vegetarians and eat pork, as well as drink alcohol. Agriculture was an essential part of the Rajput kingdom's economy. Rulers sponsored the building of canals for irrigation and controlled land use. Other industries included cotton making, steel making, and salt trade. |
The Bhakti Movement
Many people in India grew disillusioned with Hinduism when Buddhism became established. Also becoming more popular was the Bhakti movement that diffused from southern India to northern India helping Hinduism survive. The movement emphasized intense adoration to one particular Hindu deity within the pantheon of deities through song, meditation, prayers and rituals. They were a lot like the Sufis that tried to reform the Muslim religion where both emphasized a direct religious experience with God instead of focusing on rigid rituals. The Bhakti movement also pushed back against the traditional caste system and traditional gender roles. They invited everyone to their adoration. The Bhakti easily assimilated local beliefs and local deities allowing Hinduism to survive and essentially giving the lower castes an alternative to Buddhism and Islam. The inclusion of the Bhakti moment led to the decline of Buddhism in India.